TheAmericanRevolutionwasnotasuddenandviolentoverturningofthepoliticalandsocialframework,suchaslateroccurredinFranceandRussia,whenbothwerealreadyindependentnations.Significantchangeswereusheredin,buttheywerenotbreathtaking.Whathappenedwasacceleratedevolutionratherthanoutrightrevolution.Duringtheconflictitselfpeoplewentonworkingandpraying,marryingandplaying.Mostofthemwerenotseriouslydisturbedbytheactualfighting,andmanyofthemoreisolatedcommunitiesscarcelyknewthatawarwason.
Yeteventhepoliticaloverturnwasnotsorevolutionaryasonemightsuppose.Insomestates,notablyConnecticutandRhodeIsland,thewarlargelyratifiedacolonialself-rulealreadyexisting.Britishofficials,everywhereousted,werereplacedbyahome-growngoverningclass,whichpromptlysoughtalocalsubstituteforkingandParliament.
AndrewCarnegie,knownastheKingofSteel,builtthesteelindustryintheUnitedStates,and,intheprocess,becameoneofthewealthiestmeninAmerica.Hissuccessresultedinpartfromhisabilitytoselltheproductandinpartfromhispolicyofexpandingduringperiodsofeconomicdecline,whenmostofhiscompetitorswerereducingtheirinvestments.
Carnegiebelievedthatindividualsshouldprogressthroughhardwork,buthealsofeltstronglythatthewealthyshouldusetheirfortunesforthebenefitofsociety.Heopposedcharity,preferringinsteadtoprovideeducationalopportunitiesthatwouldallowotherstohelpthemselves."Hewhodiesrich,diesdisgraced,"heoftensaid.
Amonghismorenoteworthycontributionstosocietyarethosethatbearhisname,includingtheCarnegieInstituteofPittsburgh,whichhasalibrary,amuseumoffinearts,andamuseumofnationalhistory.HealsofoundedaschooloftechnologythatisnowpartofCarnegie-MellonUniversity.OtherphilanthropicgiftsaretheCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeacetopromoteunderstandingbetweennations,theCarnegieInstituteofWashingtontofundscientificresearch,andCarnegieHalltoprovideacenterforthearts.
Science&Technology
TheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS)
Feb19th2009|CHICAGO
FromTheEconomistprintedition
Theevolutionaryroleofcookery
YOUarewhatyoueat,orsothesayinggoes.ButRichardWrangham,ofHarvardUniversity,believesthatthisistrueinamoreprofoundsensethantheoneimpliedbytheoldproverb.Itisnotjustyouwhoarewhatyoueat,buttheentirehumanspecies.AndwithHomosapiens,whatmakesthespeciesuniqueinDrWrangham’sopinionisthatitsfoodissooftencooked.
Cookingisahumanuniversal.Nosocietyiswithoutit.Nooneotherthanafewfaddiststriestosurviveonrawfoodalone.Andtheconsumptionofacookedmealintheevening,usuallyinthecompanyoffamilyandfriends,isnormalineveryknownsociety.Moreover,withoutcooking,thehumanbrain(whichconsumes20-25%ofthebody’senergy)couldnotkeeprunning.DrWranghamthusbelievesthatcookingandhumanityarecoeval.
Infact,asheoutlinedtotheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS),inChicago,hethinksthatcookingandotherformsofpreparingfoodarehumanity’s“killerapp”:theevolutionarychangethatunderpinsalloftheother—andsubsequent—changesthathavemadepeoplesuchunusualanimals.
Humansbecamehuman,asitwere,withtheemergence1.8myearsagoofaspeciescalledHomoerectus.Thishadaskeletonmuchlikemodernman’s—abig,brain-filledskullandanarrowpelvisandribcage,whichimplyasmallabdomenandthusasmallgut.Hitherto,theexplanationforthisshiftfromthesmallerskullsandwiderpelvisesofman’sapelikeancestorshasbeenashiftfromavegetable-baseddiettoameat-basedone.Meathasmorecaloriesthanplantmatter,thetheorywent.Asmallergutcouldthereforesupportalargerbrain.
DrWranghamdisagrees.Whenyoudothesums,heargues,rawmeatisstillinsufficienttobridgethegap.Hepointsoutthatevenmodern“rawfoodists”,membersofatown-dwelling,back-to-naturesocialmovement,struggletomaintaintheirweight—andtheyhaveaccesstoanimalsandplantsthathavebeenbredforthetable.Pre-agriculturalmanconfinedtorawfoodwouldhavestarved.
Firelight
Startcooking,however,andthingschangeradically.Cookingaltersfoodinthreeimportantways.Itbreaksstarchmoleculesintomoredigestiblefragments.
It“denatures”proteinmolecules,sothattheiramino-acidchainsunfoldanddigestiveenzymescanattackthemmoreeasily.Andheatphysicallysoftensfood.Thatmakesiteasiertodigest,soeventhoughthestuffisnomorecalorific,thebodyusesfewercaloriesdealingwithit.
Insupportofhisthesis,DrWrangham,whoisananthropologist,hasransackedotherfieldsandcomeupwithanimpressivearrayofmaterial.Cookingincreasestheshareoffooddigestedinthestomachandsmallintestine,whereitcanbeabsorbed,from50%to95%accordingtoworkdoneonpeoplefittedformedicalreasonswithcollectionbagsattheendsoftheirsmallintestines.Previousstudieshadsuggestedrawfoodwasdigestedequallywellascookedfoodbecausetheylookedatfaecesasbeingtheendproduct.These,however,havebeenexposedtothedigestivemerciesofbacteriainthelargeintestine,andanyresidualgoodieshavebeenremovedfromthemthatway.
Anothertellingexperiment,conductedonrats,didnotrelyoncooking.Rathertheexperimentersgroundupfoodpelletsandthenrecompactedthemtomakethemsofter.Ratsfedonthesofterpelletsweighed30%moreafter26weeksthanthosefedthesameweightofstandardpellets.Thedifferencewasbecauseofthelowercostofdigestion.Indeed,DrWranghamsuspectsthemaincauseofthemodernepidemicofobesityisnotovereating(whichtheevidencesuggests—inAmerica,atleast—isamyth)buttheriseofprocessedfoods.Thesearesofter,becausethatiswhatpeopleprefer.Indeed,thenervesfromthetastebudsmeetinapartofthebraincalledtheamygdalawithnervesthatconveyinformationonthesoftnessoffood.Itisonlyafterthesetwoqualitieshavebeencomparedthatthebrainassesseshowpleasantamouthfulactuallyis.
Thearchaeologicalevidenceforancientcookeryisequivocal.DigsshowthatbothmodernhumansandNeanderthalscontrolledfireinawaythatalmostcertainlymeanstheycouldcook,anddidsoatleast200,000yearsago.Sincethelastcommonancestorofthetwospecieslivedmorethan400,000yearsago(seefollowingstory)fire-controlisprobablyatleastasoldasthat,fortheylivedindifferentpartsoftheworld,andsocouldnothavecopiedeachother.
Olderallegedsitesofhumanfiresaremoresusceptibletootherinterpretations,buttheydoexist,includingonesthatgobacktothebeginningofHomoerectus.Andtracesoffireareeasilywipedout,sothelackofdirectevidenceforthemisnosurprise.Instead,DrWranghamisrelyingonacompellingchainoflogic.Andindoingsohemayhavecastlightnotonlyonwhatmadehumanity,butononeofthethreatsitfacestoday.