复试一本通丨人大法学考研复试英语攻略:内含三十篇精选素材

又到了令无数考生头痛的英语环节,虽然复试英语没有初试考卷内容那么多且难,但是仅仅有口语考察这一关就足以令人重视,尤其是在中国考生普遍口语水平较低的情况下。所以,我们更要打起精神,把初试以后就搁置的英语捡起来,万万不可毫无准备就上场。

截至目前,我们能够统计到的人大英语复试考察的形式有以下几种。2020年以前是传统的线下笔试+面试,但由于三年疫情的影响,2020年、2021年、2022年人大的英语复试都是线上进行的,而且这三年的外语复试方案每年都不一样。具体考察方式及对应年份如下:

年份

笔试

面试

2020年以前

一小时六篇阅读

三人一组讨论

2020年

45分钟一篇大作文

单人朗读材料后老师提问

2021年

单人口头翻译后老师提问

2022年

六人一组围绕话题陈述并评价

一、英语笔试

二、英语面试

首先,笔者想强调几个共性问题。

一是自我介绍问题。虽然这几年的口语考试形式往往是直接抽签进入主题,没有和老师寒暄客套的环节,但是自我介绍却依然是要准备的,为什么?因为即便考场上用不到,自我介绍依然是让你开口说话的第一步。同学们学习了多年的哑巴英语,一朝想要练习口语一定是比较困难和羞于开口的,这时候就需要用自我介绍来破冰。笔者建议准备简洁版(1分钟以内)和详细版(2-3分钟)两个版本,先用中文写好再翻译成英文,因为专业课面试每年都是需要中文自我介绍的。自我介绍的具体模板可以参考公众号空卡和蝶澈学姐整理的内容。

二是口语口音问题。同学们不必纠结要用英音还是美音,其实哪怕你一口中式英语,能让老师和同组同学清晰的听懂都没有问题。虽然一口流利标准的英语能大大提高老师的印象分,但毕竟我们不是英专生,能尽量减少磕绊和迟疑,把话说明白就可以满足复试的要求了,用词、句式、语调的抑扬顿挫都是锦上添花。但是还是要给一些平时说话就口音较重的同学提个醒,不强调英语标准口音并不代表你可以为所欲为,还是要注意规整一下,至少不要让地方口音太明显。最后,无论线上线下,都要声音洪亮、语速适当,这不仅可以更好地让老师听清你的表达,而且可以显示出你的自信,细若蚊蝇且毫无激情的声音是大忌。

2022年的英语复试形式与内容和前一年的都不一样,比较复杂。素材选取的内容包括但不限于法律英语,也可能涉及到社会民生问题和热点问题。

笔者将口语流程总结如下:

1、随机抽签分组,在网站上公布组别和腾讯会议号,六人一组,每组大概半小时到四十分钟。

2、六人进入会议室准备期间(此时尚未开考见到老师),先由教务老师组织再次抽签,确定A1、A2、A3、B1、B2、B3分别对应的同学,并统一改备注名。

4、一分钟过后老师提醒A1同学发言,每人限时三分钟,按照A1、A2、A3、B1、B2、B3的顺序依次发言。

同学们不用太担心听不懂队友的英语,大家都有一定的基础,让人听清的能力基本都具备。况且,就算听不懂,只要抓住关键词也可以合理编写评价,每个人的发言稿基本都遵循总分总的结构,听清他表达的first、second等表示顺序的词之后的中心句即可。评价时不仅要简单复述对应同学的观点,最好还要提出他的优缺点。说优点时可以稍微夸大一点,并以谦虚的口吻表明自己的敬佩,说缺点时要委婉一点,表述成“如果…就更好了。”

1、抽取题目号码

3、朗读材料

4、口头翻译材料

5、老师提问+考生回答

2021年的英语复试在没有笔试的情况下,增加了对于段落的翻译。根据复试之后大家的反馈,法学学硕考生抽到的题目均为与法律有关的英语段落,包括民法、刑法、国际法等等,难度在标准的法律英语和普通英语之间,并且法律英语涉及到的具体学科类别并不会针对同学们报考的科目进行一一匹配,也就是说民商法的同学也可能抽到贪污贿赂犯罪主题的英文材料。因此笔者认为有必要单独准备法律英语,具体可以从如下方面入手:

1、找一些法律英语的段落,按照考研翻译题的做题思路和标准来自行翻译。考虑到考试时是口头翻译且无法在原文上勾画(电脑屏幕显示文本),且基本为长难句,应当逐渐提高翻译的速度。不过即使不会法律英语,在回答问题的时候也可以用自己已知的单词罗列进行解释说明。

2、有针对性地准备一下法律英语方面的单词,各科都要有所涉及。可以买一本市面上的教材,比如何家弘的法律英语,或者直接用本科上课时候留下的任何法律英语资料。看完课文之后,可以把基础的名词背一背,比如诉讼、不法行为、财产等,尽量在翻译时少碰到一些自己不会的单词,但万一有看不懂的词也不要慌张,可以联系上下文和你所学的法律知识进行合理编排,在语言组织上有意识的用其他猜测到的含义进行覆盖。

2020年的考察形式是把一篇阅读材料拆成几段,由学生朗读后老师针对你对该阅读的文意理解进行几轮提问。当年的阅读材料的选择范围很广,有时政类也有比较简单的科技利弊一类。属于比较传统的口语考试方式,类似雅思口语的part3。

一般来说,提问和追问不会让你哑口无言的,基本都是可以围绕生活见闻或者所学知识谈两点的,这里有一个回答问题的小技巧,就是不要拿到问题就直接以yes或no开头,这样就一下子把天聊死了。如果你快速想到了想说的内容,可以以“Well,that’sagoodquestion.”开头,如果还要犹豫一会暂时想不到好内容,可以说“Sorry.Ihaven’tthoughtaboutthisquestionbefore,butIguess……”另外,不要说一两句就停下来让老师找话题。如果没有什么可说的可以在话题范围内举一个自己的例子,描述自己的生活,多添加一些描述性的词语,比如,你想说:“我今天中午去了咖啡厅。”但是这句话可以扩写成:“今天中午我午睡醒来,感觉无所事事,但是天气又很好,所以我决定去街角那家咖啡店逛逛。我进到店里发现顾客很多,但我还是找到了一个阳光充足的位置……”

2020年以前的英语面试的考察方式是3个人组成一个小组,面试老师会给到一段材料,三人轮流朗读后,再按顺序发表意见看法。这种方式常见于大学英语口语课的期末考试中,相信许多同学也一定经历过。

具体练习时,3人分成ABC不同角色进行练习,A负责引导讨论和最后总结,3人轮流担当A这个角色。练习时,先分角色朗读各自的部分,再就该话题进行讨论。练习过程中可以一起总结一些怎样互相衔接、抛话给对方的表达,以及探索如何更好做总结。要时刻记住,团队里的三人是合作关系大于竞争关系,一荣俱荣一损俱损,因此不要风头过盛也不要一言不发,注意随机应变。

纵观这几年的考情变化,基本可以判断出考试形式越来越复杂,考察难度也在增加。但是,书山有路勤为径,学海无涯苦作舟。练习英语本没有什么捷径,口语更是如此,惟有勤加练习方能脱口而出。一开始肯定是困难重重,甚是挫败,但是请大家一定要坚持下去,不要摆烂。笔者在大三期间曾备考过雅思,练习口语的方式就是拿着一沓打印好的当季题库和自己提前写好的回答,在宿舍楼的楼梯间自己练习并录音比较,滚动练习2-3遍,直到把每一道题都练完。这样强迫自己开口说话和在心里默默打草稿是完全不一样的,一张嘴你就会发现自己的问题,有时候嘴赶不上脑子,有时候那个单词就在嘴边但是不知道怎么表达以至于停顿过长毁了整段对话。这些小问题都需要自己在练习时候不断摸索适合自己的解决方案。因此,口语的真理就是练。先不要管内容如何,至少能够完整的说三分钟英语来表达你的观点。

历来口语考试就是现场效果优于人机对话,如果2023年恢复线下考试,大家也不用过于担心和紧张,人大的老师们都十分随和,而且线下考试可能会让一些现场型选手兴奋起来,发挥出更佳状态。但万一不幸搞砸了笔试或口试的任意一个环节,也不要太过悲伤和自责,因为复试本身占比就少,而且分成专业课笔试、专业课面试和英语笔试面试这么多科,这样一来每一门的占比都不是很大,所以不会有致命打击。

1、税收的利弊

Taxesarevitalinanygovernment.Bothdemocraticandmilitarygovernmentsrequiretaxesfromthepublicsothatthegovernmentcanrunsmoothlyandefficiently.

Advantagesofpayingtaxes:

(1)Fundingtothegovernment:

Themostobviousadvantageoftaxingisthatthegovernmentcanreceivefundsfromthepublicsothatthegovernmentcanrunthecountry.Itgivesthegovernmentafreehandtocarryoutbasicoperationsforthecountry.Theconstitutionofunitesstatesalsoprovidestaxationreasons.Onereasonisbuildinganarmyforthesecurityofthecountry.Moreover,thereareotheroperationfacilitiesthatthegovernmenthastofulfillbyusingthefundsreceivedthroughtaxes.Theadministrationthatrunsthecountrywouldnotevenexistiftherewerenotaxes.Asthegovernmentpaysitsadministrationtocontrolthecountryandpasslegislatures.

(2)Equalwealthdistribution:

Taxesalsoprovidethepeoplewithanadvantage.Thatthefundscollectedbythegovernmentarespendingonthepeopleequally.Thegovernmentcandistributethewealthequallyandprovidethepoorwithnecessitiesoflifesuchasfood,clothes,andhomeshelters.Thetaxpayerswiththemostmoneyarerestrictedbythegovernmenttopayfordifferenteconomicalprogramslaunchedforthepoor.Asthesewealthytaxpayershelpthegovernmentinfundingthepoorpeople.Theseprogramsallowthemiddleclassandthepoorclasstobecomestable.

(3)Taxconsumption:

Mostofthetimegovernmentdoesnotrequireextrafunds,butitstillappliesheavytaxesoncertainproducts.Theydothisbecausethoseproductsareharmfultothehealthofthepeople.Byimposingheavytaxesonthosesubstances,suchascigarettesandalcohol,Thegovernmenttriestodiscouragepeoplefrombuyingsuchstuffthatisunhealthyforthem.

Disadvantagesoftaxes:

Therearemultipleadvantagesofimposingtaxesonthepublic,therearealsosomedisadvantages.Onedisadvantageistheirregularitybetweenconsumersspending.Taxationisharmfultothebusinesssectorasitcanpotentiallydecreaseconsumerspending.Itisbecausetaxescansnatchmoneyfromconsumers,anditcanleadtolowerdisposableincome.Ithappensifthegovernmentmakeswrongdecisionsandimposesincorrectbusinesslaws.Sometimes,peoplealsosaythatthegovernmenttreatsaspecificgroupunfairlyandbenefitsothergroups.Thegovernmentmayimposetaxesthatmightbenefittherichandcanbeunfairforthepoor.

2、人口老龄化

Theageingoftheworld'spopulationsistheresultofthecontinueddeclineinfertilityratesandincreasedlifeexpectancy.Inotherwords,peoplearehavingfewerchildren,andarehavingthematlaterages.Theyarealsolivinglonger.Thisdemographicchangehasresultedinincreasingnumbersandproportionsofpeoplewhoareover60.Asaresult,thefirsttimeinhistorywhentherewillbemoreolderpeoplethanyoungerpeopleisrapidlyapproaching.

Ageinghasimportantconsequencesforthestate,healthcare,educationand,moregenerally,fortheeconomicgrowthofanation.Aspeoplegrowolder,theysufferfromnewerandmoreseverehealthissues.Inparticular,therewillbemorechronicdiseases.Thus,anageingpopulationplacesacrucialburdenonanation'shealthcaresystem.

Economieswillneedtoallocatemoreresourcestomedicalcare,asolderpopulationsrequiremoreandbetterhealthcarefacilities.Thiswillmeanreviewinggovernmentpolicyandfinancialframeworks.

Thehealthcaresystemwillalsoneedtobesuppliedwithskilledandqualifiedworkerswhocanprovideefficient,high-qualitycare.

Hospitalsandotherinstitutionswillhavetoadoptnewtechnologyandbetterinfrastructure.

3、文化遗产返还

ForcountrieswhoseculturalheritagewasransackedovertheyearslikeChina,theireffortsinretrievingthelostculturalheritageareontheway.Manydifficulties,suchasinternationalconventionsandadversearticlesinmanycountries'domesticlaws,mayhinderthereturnofthislostculturalheritage,andcountriesoforiginneedtofindmorewaystogettheirownpropertyback.

Inrecentyears,Chinahassuccessfullyretrievedmoreandmoreofitslostculturalrelicsbyusingdiversemethods."ThemostimportantreasonwhymanyculturalrelicscamebackhomeinrecentyearsistheenhancementofChina'sstrength,"saidHuoZhengxin,professoroflawandvicedeanoftheFacultyofInternationalLawattheChinaUniversityofPoliticalScienceandLaw.

Thereareseveralcommonwaystopursuelostculturalrelics:donations,bilateralenforcementcooperation,lodgingatransnationallawsuit,diplomaticnegotiation,andcommercialrepurchase.Althoughitwasoncethemainmethodofreturningrelics,repurchaseshavebecomelesspopularduetosomeorganizationsauctioningtheitemsoffinatraditionalmanner,thuscreatingbiddingwars."Topursueculturalrelicsstolenandsmuggledinthemodernday,weprefertouselegalactions,andtopursueculturalrelicslostinearlydays,wecanusemoreflexibleways,suchasnegotiation,"saidHuo.

Forexample,bronzeanimalheads,originallypartofafountainattheOldSummerPalace,werelootedbytheAnglo-FrenchAlliedForcesin1860.Thepricesoftheheadshadrisenbyover10,000timessincethefirstauctionin1987."WhentheylootedculturaltreasuresfromChinaatthetime,itwasaharmtoChinesepeople.Today,Chineseboughtthembackathighprices.Ithinkitisanotherkindofharm,"saidHuo.

4、法律职业伦理

Legalethicsisatermusedtodescribeacodeofconductgoverningproperprofessionalbehavior,whichestablishesthenatureofobligationsowedtoindividualsandtosociety.Inordertomaintainalicensetopracticelaw,attorneysagreetouploadtherulesofprofessionalconduct.

Principlesoflegalethics,whetherwrittenorunwritten,notonlyregulatetheconductoflegalpracticebutalsoreflectsthebasicassumptions,premisesandmethodsofthelegalsystemwithinwhichthelawyeroperates.

Ethicsinanyprofessionarecrucialanditisperhapsmorepressinginthelegalprofessionwherelawyersespeciallywereviewedwithsuspicion.Thusanenforcedcodeofconductisvitalinensuringthecredibilityofthepractitionersandlegalsystemasawhole.Oftenlawyersandotherlegalpractitionersarefacedwithconflictinginterestsfromtheclientstheyrepresent,societyatlargeandpersonalinterests.Legalethicsarethereforeimportantinhelpingthelawyertonavigatethedelicatebalanceoftheseinterestsandworktopromotethegreatestgood.Ethicsalsoservetosafeguardtheinterestsoftheclientbeingrepresentedandensuretheyreceiveservicewithoutdiscrimination.

5、办公室安装监控是否合法

Camerasintheworkplacecanhelpprotectthecompanyfromtheftandothersecurityissues.However,peoplemaybewonderingiftheseofficesecuritycamerasareaninvasionofprivacyofemployeesorsparkanylegalityissues.

Unlikeinstallingsurveillancecamerasinpublicplaces,generally,there’sNOexplicitprohibitionagainstsurveillancecamerasintheworkplaceinUSFederalLaws.LawsoncamerasintheworkplacedifferbystatesintheUS.ManystateshavemadeCCTVregulationsintheworkplace,toprotectemployees’rights.

However,thereisafinelinethatbetweenfilmingthatcanprotectbusinessandfilmingthatcaninfringeontheprivacyrightsofemployees.Examplesoflawfulreasonstousecamerasintheworkplaceincludethefollowing:

1)MonitorWhatEmployeesareDoingWhileTheyareontheClock

2)PreventInternalTheftwithOfficeSecurityCameraSystem

3)ProtectYourOfficefromExternalTheft/BurglarywithOfficeCameras

Inmoststates,useofvideosurveillancecamerasintheworkplaceisdeemedunlawfulincertainareas,whichincludeanyareaswherereasonableprivacymaybeinfringedupon.Theseareastypicallyincluderestrooms,lockerrooms,breakroomsandemployeelounges,oranyotherareawhereanemployee’sreasonableprivacymaybecompromised.

6、物种灭绝

Extinctionisthecompletelossofaspeciesfromourplanet.Specieslossoccursnaturallyovermillionsofyears,andisanormalpartofevolution.Butmanyexpertsbelievewearecurrentlyexperiencingasixthmassspeciesextinction.Billionsofregionalandlocalwildpopulationshavealreadybeenlost,andentirespeciesarebecomingextinctatasignificantlyfasterratethanhashappenedatanytimeduringthelastmillionyears.Whatisthecauseofthisglobalbiologicalannihilation?People.

Ourfoodchoicesareabsolutelycentraltothefateofwildlife.Ashumansdestroyhabitatsaroundtheworld,breakdowntheclimate,andhuntandkillwildanimals,includingintheoceans,wildpopulationsplummet.Ourtreatmentandexploitationoffarmedanimalsfortheirflesh,skin,milk,eggs,andotherby-productsdrivesenvironmentaldestruction,and,alongsideotheragriculturalfactors,isahugedriverofthislossofwildlife.Wemustmakedrasticchangestoslowthisdown.

Thewildworldhasintrinsicvalue,andweshouldrespectitonthatbasisalone,asourancestorsundoubtedlydid.Butthereisanotherreasontochangeourways:Humansrelyonbiodiversityofwildlifeandplantlifetosurvive,andthemorewedrivethemtoextinction,thecloserwepushourselvestothesamefate.

7、3D打印犯罪

3Dprintinghasthepotentialtotransformtheworldbysimplifyingmanufacturing,shorteningsupplyanddistributionchains,democratizingproduction,creatingandrepatriatingjobs,andcustomizingproductstousers’specificneeds.But3Dprintingcanalsobetheproverbialdevil’splayground.Likemanytechnologies,3Dprintinghasadarkside,andcriminalsareusing3Dprinterstocreatenewformsofcrime.

Someillegal3D-printedproducts(suchasFirearmsdrugsandcash)willbebought,sold,ortradedinphysicalorvirtualblackmarkets.Organizedcrimewillfindcreativewaystoprofitfrom3Dprinting,suchastraffickingin3D-printeddrugsandhumanorgans.Terroristswilladoptthetechnologytofurthertheirmisguidedmissions.Itisimpossibletopredicthowdeeplysuchuserswilldelveintothedarksideof3Dprinting.

Aswithmanytechnologies,3Dprintingcanbemisused,butnotbecausethetechnologyisinherentlyflawed.Peopleareflawed.Althoughthesizeoftheproblemcouldbehuge,thisisonlybecausethetechnologyissorevolutionaryanddisruptive.Governments,lawenforcement,homelandsecurity,andthemilitaryneedtoassesstherisksfromthedarksideof3Dprintingandplanaccordingly.

8、律所加班

It’swidelyknownthatlawyerworkinghoursarelongandgrueling.Forattorneys,afull-timerolerarelymeansnine-to-five:AccordingtotheU.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,themajorityoflawyersworkfulltime,withmanyputtinginmorethan40hourseachweek—especiallyprivatepracticeandlarge-firmlawyers.

Ifwelookatthecomplexitiesofthetypicalcareerpathoflawyers,it’sevidentwhylawyersworksomuch.There’ssomuchtodo—frommeetingbillablehourrequirements,managingclients,goingtocourt,andstayingontopofcaseprep.Withtheworkloadcomesalotofpressuretotoughitoutwithlongworkinghourstogeteverythingdone.

Butthereisahugeproblemwithsimplyacceptingthattheworkinghoursofalawyerare,bynecessity,exceptionallylonganddemanding.Normalizingoverworkinthelegalprofessionfuelsanindustrythatsuffersfromburnout,excessivestress,substanceabuseandmentalhealthissues,andanoveralllackofwell-being.

9、中美关系

Overthepasthalfacentury,theChina-U.S.relationshiphaskeptmovingforwarddespitetwistsandturns.Ithasnotonlyhadaprofoundimpactonthetwocountries,buthasalsochangedthecourseofhistoryandtheworldsignificantly.Theworldtodayisgoingthroughmajorchangesunseeninacentury.Astwobigcountriesdifferentinhistory,culture,socialsystemanddevelopmentstage,ChinaandtheUnitedStatesareenteringanewroundofmutualexploration,understandingandadaptation,tryingtofindawaytogetalongwitheachotherinthenewera.TheChina-U.S.relationshiphasonceagaincometoanewcriticaljuncture,facingnotonlymanydifficultiesandchallengesbutalsogreatopportunitiesandpotentials.Wherethisimportantrelationshipwillbeheadedisvitalforthewell-beingoftheChineseandAmericanpeoplesandforthefutureoftheworld.Thetwopeoplesandtheinternationalcommunityhopeforasound,stableandgrowingrelationshipbetweenthetwocountries

10、妇女权益保护法修订

OnOctober30,2022,theStandingCommitteeofthe13thNationalPeople’sCongress,China’stoplegislativebody,passedtherevisedLawontheProtectionofWomen’sRightsandInterests(hereinafterreferredtoasthe“Women’sProtectionLaw”).TheamendedWomen’sProtectionLaw,whichwilltakeeffectonJanuary1,2023,addednearly30newprovisionstoenhancewomen’sprotectioninareasrangingfromgenderequalityinrecruitmentandcontractnegotiation,employer’sobligationinsexualharassmentprevention,aswellasreliefmeasurestowomenshouldtheirrightsandinterestsbeingharmed.

TheexposuredraftfortheWomen’sProtectionLawamendmentgarneredmorethan700,000commentsduringtheseekingopinionstage,makingitthelegislativedocumentthatwascommentedthemostinrecentyears.Thelawwasamendedin2005and2018,respectively,afterbeingfirstenactedin1992.

WhatarethekeychangesinChina’snewWomen’sProtectionLaw

1)Eliminategenderdiscriminationinthehiringprocess

2)Protectfemaleemployees’birthrights

3)Preventsexualharassment

4)Protecttheprivacyandpersonalinformationofwomen

Asthecountrystrugglestodealwithademographicproblem,astringofgender-relatedscandalshavealsosparkedpublicoutcryovergenderinequality.Consequently,in2021,thegovernmentunveiledanew10-yearplan,theOutlineofWomen’sDevelopmentinChina(2021-2030),withastrongemphasisonemploymentrights.Thedocumentproposed75maingoalsand93supportivemeasures,coveringkeyareasincludinghealth,education,andtheeconomy.

TheOutlinesuggeststhatby2030,thebasicnationalpolicyofequalitybetweenmenandwomenwillbethoroughlyimplemented,andtheinstitutionalmechanismstopromoteequalitybetweenmenandwomenandtheall-rounddevelopmentofwomenwillbeinnovatedandimproved,aspartofthegovernment’smajoreffortstoeliminatediscriminationandimprovethestatusofwomeninChina.

11、网络信息安全

Thehumanbeingsaresteppingintotheinformationsociety.Theinformationindustrydevelopsveryrapidly,sodothehackers,trick-playingteens,exploringchildren,fraudsters,andseriouswhite-collarcriminals.Thus,informationsecuritybecomesanimpendingimportantissue.

Incaseofinformationbreach,thevictims-governmentdepartment,anorganizationoraninstitution,oracompanywillinevitablysuffergreatorsmallloss.Governmentmaybethreatenedwithnationalsecurity.Companiesmayloseopportunitiestodevelopnewprojects.Andthepublic’sandusers’confidencewillbedamaged.

ThenhowtodealwiththisissueTechnologyisonlyapartialsolutiontoinformationsecurity.What’smoreimportantisthatorganizationsandcompaniesshouldpromotetheawarenessoninformationsecuritytoitsstaff.However,sincenosystemcaneverbe100percentsecure,aprevention-onlyapproachtoinformationsecuritymanagementisnotenough.Companiesandorganizationsshouldadoptadualapproachtoinformationsecuritymanagementbycombingpreventionanddetectiontechniques

12、低碳经济

TheStateCouncilhasreleasedaguidelinetoacceleratethedevelopmentofagreenandlow-carboncirculareconomicdevelopmentsystem.

Theguidelineurgeseffortstofirmlyimplementthenewdevelopmentphilosophy,boostefficiencyintheuseofresources,strengthenprotectionoftheecologicalenvironmentandeffectivelycontrolgreenhousegasemissions.

By2025,Chinawillseeamarkedriseinthescaleofgreenindustries,acontinueddropinmajorpollutantsandaslashedcarbonemissionintensity,accordingtotheguideline.

By2035,energyandresourceutilizationefficiencyinkeyindustriesandkeyproductsisexpectedtoreachaninternationallyadvancedlevel,andthegoaltobuildabeautifulChinawillbebasicallyreached.

Chinahasannounceditwillstrivetopeakcarbondioxideemissionsby2030andachievecarbonneutralityby2060.

13、司法独立

Judicialindependence,theabilityofcourtsandjudgestoperformtheirdutiesfreeofinfluenceorcontrolbyotheractors,whethergovernmentalorprivate.Thetermisalsousedinanormativesensetorefertothekindofindependencethatcourtsandjudgesoughttopossess.

Anycomprehensiveandcoherentdefinitionofjudicialindependencemustaddressseveralquestions.Thefirstis,“Independenceforwhom”;thesecondis,“Independencefromwhom”;andthethirdis,“Independencefromwhat”Tosupplysatisfyinganswerstothosequestions,however,itisnecessarytoconsiderwhyjudicialindependenceisvaluableandwhatitissupposedtoaccomplish.Inotherwords,itisnecessarytoaddressthequestion,“Independenceforwhatpurpose”

1)Independenceforwhom

Judicialindependencecanbedefinedasacharacteristicofindividualjudgesorasacharacteristicofthejudiciaryasawhole.Neitherconceptionisindisputablypreferabletotheotherasapracticalmatter.Ontheonehand,ifjudicialindependenceisguaranteedattheinstitutionallevelbutnotattheindividuallevel,individualjudgescanbeforcedtoobeythewishesoftheleadershipofthejudiciary,whichmayresultinaless-than-wholeheartedenforcementoftheruleoflaw.InChileandJapan,forexample,theextenttowhichthejudiciaryasaninstitutioncommandsobedienceandconformityfromitsmembershasbeenblamedforproducingtimidjudgeswhoareunwillingorunabletoruleagainstthegovernment.Ontheotherhand,ifjudicialindependenceisensuredattheindividuallevel,individualjudgeswillfindthemselvesatlibertytopursuetheirindividualpreferences.Uncheckeddiscretionofthatkindnotonlyinvitesabusebutalsoraisesthelikelihoodthatjudgeswilldecidecasesininconsistentways,withthepotentialeffectofunderminingthepredictabilityandstabilityofthelaw.

2)Independencefromwhom

Theexistenceandadequacyofjudicialindependencebecomemattersofpracticalconcernonlywhenacourtdecidesadisputeinvolvingtheinterestsofsomeactororinstitutionwithpotentialoractualpoweroverthecourt.Generallyspeaking,themorepowerfultheactorwhoseinterestsareatstake,thegreatertheneedtoprotecttheindependenceofthecourtfromthatactor.Ifbothsidestothedisputearepowerful,however,thatsymmetryofpowermayprovidepartorallofthenecessaryprotection.

3)Independencefromwhat

Notallformsofinfluenceoverjudicialdecisionmakingconstitutethreatstojudicialindependence.Whereassomeactivitiesaimedatinfluencingcourts,suchasbriberyandintimidation,maybeinappropriateunderanyplausibleconceptionofjudicialindependence,otherscanbeevaluatedonlyonthebasisofcontestablenormativejudgments.Inthecaseofpublicprotestsinfrontofcourthouses,forexample,oneviewmightbethatsuchprotestsshouldbeprivilegedasaformofpoliticalexpressionandthatjudgesinademocracyarepermittedorevenobligatedtotakepublicopinionintoaccount.Alternatively,onemighttaketheviewthatjudgesshouldbeshieldedfromsuchexpressionsofpublicopinion,muchasjurorsaresequestered,toensurethattheirdeliberationsarenottaintedbyconsiderationsthatoughttobeirrelevant.Likewise,apubliccampaigntodenyajudgereelectionbecausehehasruledinunpopularwaysoncontroversialissuescanbecharacterizedaseitherahealthymanifestationofdemocracyorasathreattojudicialindependence.

14、死刑

Intherecentcenturies,thedeathpenaltyhasbecomerarebecauseitsuseasamethodofpunishmenthasbeenbannedbymanygovernments.Countriesthatstillcarryoutpunishmentbydeathpenaltyconstitutesaboutonlyathirdofthecountriesintheworld.SuchcountriesincludeIran,Iraq,China,SaudiArabia,UnitedStates,Afghanistan,Yemen,andSudanamongothers.

Othercountries,amongthemAustralia,Canada,Mexico,andallmembersoftheCouncilofEuropehaveabolishedtheuseofthedeathpenalty.Atotalof75countriesintheworldhavecompletelyabolishedtheuseofdeathpenaltyregardlessofwhethertheoffensecommittedisacapitaloffenseornot.

Inmostcountriesthatpracticethedeathpenalty,thepenaltyisreservedonlyforthecapitalorseriouscrimes.Suchcrimesincludemurder,terrorismrape,kidnappingandhumantrafficking,illegaldrugtraffickingandcorruptionandbribery.Besides,insomestates,somesexualoffensessuchasprostitutionhomosexualityandadulteryarepunishablebythedeathpenalty.However,somecountriesalsoimposethedeathpenaltyonsmallercrimessuchasgeneraltheftanddrugs.

Itisalsoimportanttounderstandthatexecutionofthedeathpenaltyisgovernedbysomelawsandregulation.Forinstance,particulargroupsofpeopleareexcludedfrombeingsentencedtodeath.AccordingtotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,juvenileoffendersareexcludedfromreceivingthedeathpenalty.Besides,mentallyhandicappedcriminalsarealsoexcludedfromreceivingthedeathpenalty.Theseverityofthecapitaloffencecommittedbythejuvenileandthementallyhandicappedisseenaslessseverebasedonthementalcapabilityandthereforeimposingadeathpenaltyonthemisregardeddisproportionatelysevere.

15、福利国家

Theterm"welfarestate"referstoatypeofgoverninginwhichthenationalgovernmentplaysakeyroleintheprotectionandpromotionoftheeconomicandsocialwell-beingofitscitizens.Awelfarestateisbasedontheprinciplesofequalityofopportunity,equitabledistributionofwealth,andpublicresponsibilityforthoseunabletoavailthemselvesoftheminimalprovisionsofagoodlife.SocialSecurity,federallymandatedunemploymentinsuranceprograms,andwelfarepaymentstopeopleunabletoworkareallexamplesofthewelfarestate.

Mostmoderncountriespracticesomeelementsofwhatisconsideredthewelfarestate.Thatsaid,thetermisfrequentlyusedinaderogatorysensetodescribeastateofaffairswherethegovernmentinquestioncreatesincentivesthatarebeyondreason,resultinginanunemployedpersononwelfarepaymentsearningmorethanastrugglingworker.Thewelfarestateissometimescriticizedasbeinga"nannystate"inwhichadultsarecoddledandtreatedlikechildren.

16、对民主的认识

Democracymeans“rulebythepeople,”democracyisasystemofgovernmentthatnotonlyallowsbutrequirestheparticipationofthepeopleinthepoliticalprocesstofunctionproperly.U.S.PresidentAbrahamLincoln,inhisfamed1863GettysburgAddressmayhavebest-defineddemocracyasa“…governmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople…”

Semantically,thetermdemocracycomesfromtheGreekwordsfor“people”(dēmos)and“rule”(karatos).However,achievingandpreservingagovernmentbythepeople—a“popular”government—isfarmorecomplicatedthantheconcept’ssemanticsimplicitymightimply.Increatingthelegalframeworkunderwhichthedemocracywillfunction,typicallyaconstitution,severalcrucialpoliticalandpracticalquestionsmustbeanswered.

Is“rulebythepeople”evenappropriateforthegivenstateDotheinherentfreedomsofademocracyjustifydealingwithitscomplexbureaucracyandelectoralprocesses,orwouldthestreamlinedpredictabilityofamonarchy,forexample,bepreferable

Assumingapreferencefordemocracy,whichresidentsofthecountry,state,ortownshouldenjoythepoliticalstatusoffullcitizenshipSimplystated,whoarethe“people”inthe“governmentbythepeople”equationIntheUnitedStates,forexample,theconstitutionallyestablisheddoctrineofbirthrightcitizenshipprovidesthatanypersonbornonU.S.soilautomaticallybecomesaU.S.citizen.Otherdemocraciesaremorerestrictiveinbestowingfullcitizenship.

WhichpeoplewithinthedemocracyshouldbeempoweredtoparticipateinitAssumingthatonlyadultsareallowedtofullyparticipateinthepoliticalprocess,shouldalladultsbeincludedForexample,untiltheenactmentofthe19thAmendmentin1920,womenintheUnitedStateswerenotallowedtovoteinnationalelections.Ademocracythatexcludestoomanyofthegovernedfromtakingpartinwhatissupposedtobetheirgovernmentrunstheriskofbecominganaristocracy—governmentbyasmall,privilegedrulingclass—oranoligarchy—governmentbyanelite,typicallywealthy,few.

If,asoneofthefoundationalprinciplesofdemocracyholds,themajorityrules,whatwilla“proper”majoritybeAmajorityofallcitizensoramajorityofcitizenswhovoteonlyWhenissues,astheyinevitablywill,dividethepeople,shouldthewishesofthemajorityalwaysprevail,orshould,asinthecaseoftheAmericanCivilRightsMovement,minoritiesbeempoweredtoovercomemajorityruleMostimportantly,whatlegalorlegislativemechanismsshouldbecreatedtopreventthedemocracyfrombecomingavictimofwhatoneofAmerica’sFoundingFathers,JamesMadison,called“thetyrannyofthemajority”

Finally,howlikelyisitthatamajorityofthepeoplewillcontinuetobelievethatdemocracyisthebestformofgovernmentforthemForademocracytosurviveitmustretainthesubstantialsupportofboththepeopleandtheleaderstheychoose.Historyhasshownthatdemocracyisaparticularlyfragileinstitution.Infact,ofthe120newdemocraciesthathaveemergedaroundtheworldsince1960,nearlyhalfhaveresultedinfailedstatesorhavebeenreplacedbyother,typicallymoreauthoritarianformsofgovernment.Itisthereforeessentialthatdemocraciesbedesignedtorespondquicklyandappropriatelytotheinternalandexternalfactorsthatwillinevitablythreatenthem.

17、法律与社会的关系

Theoristshavetraditionallymaintainedthattherearecertainbroadonthesubstantivecriminallaw.Onesetofsuchconstraintsconcernsthesortsofbehaviorthatmaylegitimatelybeprohibited.Isitproper,forexample,tocriminalizeacertainkindofactiononthegroundsthatmostpeopleinone’ssocietyregarditasimmoralTheothersetofconstraintswhichconcernwhatisneededinordertoestablishcriminalresponsibilitythatisliability,independentlyofthecontentoftheparticularstatutewhoseviolationisinquestion.

Legalsystemreflectsalltheenergyoflifewithininanysociety.Lawhasthecomplexvitalityofalivingorganism.Wecansaythatlawisasocialsciencecharacterizedbymovementandadaptation.Rulesareneithercreatednorappliedinavacuum,ontheotherhandtheycreatedandusedtimeandagainforapurpose.Rulesareintendedtomoveusinacertaindirectionthatweassumeisgood,orprohibitmovementindirectionthatwebelieveisbad.

Thesocialrulesaremadebythemembersofthesociety.Disobedienceofthesocialrulesisfollowedbypunishmentofsocialdisapproval.Thereisnopositivepenaltyassociatedwiththeviolationofrulesexceptexcommunicationorostracism.Ontheotherhand,Lawisenforcedbythestate.Theobjectiveoflawistobringorderinthesocietysothemembersofsocietycanprogressanddevelopwithsomesortofsecurityregardingthefuture.

Thestatemakeslaws.Disobedienceofstatelawscausepenalty,whichisenforcedbytheGovernmentbythepowerofthestate.WhichisnotenforceableisnotLaw.

18、大陆法系与英美法系的比较

TheDifferencesbetweenContinentalLawSystemandAnglo-AmericanLawSystem

ThetermAnglo-AmericanLawSystemreferstothesystemoflawdevelopedinEnglandandtransferredtomostoftheEnglish-speakingworld.ItisdistinguishedfromtheContinentalLawSystemusedinContinentalEurope,andinthosenationssettledbyEuropeanpeoples.Boththetwosystemsarethebasisoflawinmostofthewesternworld.ThecontinentallawsystemcanbetracedbacktoRomanlaw,whichextendedtothelimitsoftheEmpire.Itreceiveditsmodernimpetusfromtheearlynineteenth-centuryFrenchcodesoflawcreatedbyFrenchjurists.

Thedifferencesbetweenthetwocanbeputasfollows:

First,thebasicdistinctionbetweenthetwosystemsliesinthesourcesoflawuponwhichtheyrely.TheAnglo-AmericanLawSystemusespriordecidedcasesasveryhighsourcesofauthority.

Courtsshouldadheretothelawassetforthinpriorcasesdecidedbythehighestcourt.Thejudgeshoulddeterminewhethertheprinciplederivedfromthepriorcasesislogicallyessentialtotheirdecisionorisreasonable、appropriatetocontemporarycircumstances.TheContinentalLawSystemontheotherhand,isoriginatedfromcodesoflaws.Whenaconflictispresentedtoacourtorlawyer,theimmediateproblemistofindtheappropriatecodeprovisionconcerningthesituationandthentoapplyittotheproblemathand.Casesarenotignored,buttheydonothaveanythingbindingauthorityonjudges.

Second,itisthejuristwhoplayedanimportantrolewhentheContinentalLawSystembecamewhatitisnow,but,intheAnglo-AmericanLawSystem,thejudgescontributedalot.

Third,theContinentalLawSystempaysmoreattentiontosubstantiallaw,whiletheAnglo-AmericanLawSystemstressonprocedurallaw.Thelatterunderlinestrials、procedure、proofandexecution.

Fourth,thedifferencesincompositionofthetwoareapparent.IntheContinentalLawSystem,publiclawandprivatelawarethebasicclassification,andthecivillawarethebasicclassification,andthecivillawplaysanimportantroleinit.WhilethebasicpartsoftheAnglo-AmericanLawSystemarecommonlawandequitylaw,andpubliclawisthekeypartofit.

Finally,theconceptsandvocabularyofthemarenotthesameeither.Forexample,“Civillaw”oftheContinentalLawSystemand“Propertylaw”intheAnglo-AmericanLawSystem.Thoughthesedifferencesmentionedabove,atrendofcollaborationcanbeseennowadays.Forexample,ourjudicialsystembelongstotheContinentalLawSystem,butwelearnedtheinstitutionofIndependentDirectorfromtheAnglo-AmericanLawSystem.

19、法制改革

Thereforminlegalsystemisoneoftheimportantformsoflawdevelopment.Itmeansreformingfromthecontenttotheformoflaw,fromtheenactmenttotheenforcementoflaw,tomeettheneedsofchangingsociety.Here,Ijustwanttotalkaboutthecharacteristicsandreasonsofthereforminlegalsystem.

Theinitialaimofthereforminlegalsystemismainlytoestablishanefficientandcoordinatedlegalsystem.So,itstasksaretocreatesomebranchesoflaw,drawupnewlaws,andabandonormodifysomeoldlaws.Forexample,duringtheprocessofreformation,Chinahascreatedtheeconomiclaw,thebusinesslaw,theenvironmentallaw,andsoon.Inmorethan2000lawsandregulationsissuedfrom1949to1979,halfofthemwereabandoned,onefourthweremodified,andonefourthkeepvalid.

Withtheimprovementofthelegalsystem,peoplepaymoreattentiontotheeffectoflaw.First,peoplearemoreconcernedwiththeoperationoflawinlegislation.Second,thereforminthesystemofjudicatureisputontheagenda.Third,theimprovementofthesupervisorysystemoflawispaidmoreattention.Inshort,inthisstage,thecoreofreformationistoimprovetheoperatingsystemoflaw.

But,what’stheultimategoalofourreformIthinkitistorealizerulebylaw.Meanwhile,toprotecttherightsofcitizenisalsoitsmission.Aswesee,thereforminlegalsystemisalwaysaccompaniedbyothersocialreforms.It’soneofthecharacteristicsofthereforminlegalsystem.Besidestheinnerconflictbetweenlaws,thereformineconomicsystemandpoliticalsystemaretheimpetusofreforminlegalsystem.

Onlyifthelawadaptsthedevelopmentofsociety,itcouldbringitsfunctionsintoplay.But,thereformmaybealongprocess,andwelookforwardtothecomingofasocietyruledbylaw.

20、法治

Theruleoflawisasetofprinciples,orideals,forensuringanorderlyandjustsociety.Manycountriesthroughouttheworldstrivetoupholdtheruleoflawwherenooneisabovethelaw,everyoneistreatedequallyunderthelaw,everyoneisheldaccountabletothesamelaws,thereareclearandfairprocessesforenforcinglaws,thereisanindependentjudiciary,andhumanrightsareguaranteedforall.

21、联合国

TheUnitedNationsisaninternationalorganizationfoundedin1945.Currentlymadeupof193MemberStates,theUNanditsworkareguidedbythepurposesandprinciplescontainedinitsfoundingCharter.

TheUNhasevolvedovertheyearstokeeppacewitharapidlychangingworld.

Butonethinghasstayedthesame:itremainstheoneplaceonEarthwherealltheworld’snationscangathertogether,discusscommonproblems,andfindsharedsolutionsthatbenefitallofhumanity.

22、性别歧视

Sexismmeansdiscriminationbasedonsexorgender,orthebeliefthatbecausemenaresuperiortowomen,discriminationisjustified.Suchabeliefcanbeconsciousorunconscious.Insexism,asinracism,thedifferencesbetweentwo(ormore)groupsareviewedasindicationsthatonegroupissuperiororinferior.Sexistdiscriminationagainstgirlsandwomenisameansofmaintainingmaledominationandpower.Theoppressionordiscriminationcanbeeconomic,political,social,orcultural.

ElementsofSexism

1)Sexismincludesattitudesorideology,includingbeliefs,theories,andideasthatholdonegroup(usuallymale)asdeservedlysuperiortotheother(usuallyfemale),andthatjustifyoppressingmembersoftheothergrouponthebasisoftheirsexorgender.

2)Sexisminvolvespracticesandinstitutionsandthewaysinwhichoppressioniscarriedout.Theseneednotbedonewithaconscioussexistattitudebutmaybeunconsciouscooperationinasystemthathasbeeninplacealreadyinwhichonesex(usuallyfemale)haslesspowerandfewergoodsinthesociety.

23、人工智能否取代律师、法官

Imaginegoingtocourt,andinsteadofseeingajudgewearingtheircloakandholdingtheirgavel,youseearobotreadytohearyourcase.Wouldyoutrustthismachinetogiveyouandyourclientafairtrial–onethatcouldshapeawholelife

Artificialintelligenceisslowlybeginningtoaidlegalprofessionals,lawfirms,andtheoveralllegalindustry.TheconsensusisthatAIwillonedaybethenormincourtrooms,too.Butnotforawhile.

That’sbecausehumansmusttrainanAImachineinthefirstplace.Andtodothat,humansmustusehistoricalevidenceanddatafromprecedentcases.Butgiventhat,historically,peoplehavebeenmorebiasedanddiscriminatorythannot,theAIcouldeasilybecomethesame.Sotherearemanystepsthatneedtobetaken–thefirstistrainingAIwithunbiasedandnon-discriminatorydata.Thiswillensurethatthemachineisnotgoingtobeinfavorofonepersonovertheother.Thesecondstepafterthismachinelearningisdeterminingwhetherthemachineisworthanyfurtherinvestment.

AlthoughAIcannotfully“replace”ajudgeorlawyer’spositionatpresent,itisstillusefulinthecourtroominmanyways.AnAImachinecangatherresearch,preventingthejudgefromhavingtogothroughlegalbooksmanually.Suchlegaltechnologyisalsoabletoaddressfundamentalcrisesincourtsbyhelpingtomakejusticeclearandefficient.Also,anAImachineisabletofilladvisoryroleslikegatheringevidenceorestimatingrecidivismratesbasedonstatisticaldata.Thissavesjudgesatremendousamountoftime.

24、创新与知识产权保护

Innovationandintellectualpropertyareintrinsicallylinked.Youcanprotectnewinventionsandcreationswiththeprovisionsofintellectualproperty(IP)lawbyprotectingothersfromprofitingfromyourinnovations.

Patentprotectionfinanciallyrewardscreatorsforinnovationsthatarecommerciallysuccessful,whichprovidesavaluableincentivetocreatelife-improvingtechnologies.Smallbusinessesandindependentinventorscanexpectareturnoninvestmentforthetimeandmoneytheyspenddevelopinganewinnovation.Society,inturn,benefitsfromboththenewinnovationandtheeconomicopportunitiesitcreates.Therevenuesfromthesetechnologiesprovideforthefinancingofadditionalresearchanddevelopmentendeavors.

Thepatentprocessturnsaninventionintoacommercialassetthroughsales,licensing,andcollaboration.Intellectualproperty(IP)assetssuchaspatentscanalsoattractinvestorstothebusiness.Thenewknowledgeandintelligencegeneratedbyaninventioncaninspirefuturecreations,whichmayleadtoadditionalpatentedinnovations.

Themappingofpatentinformationalsoallowspolicymakerstoseewherevaluableresearchanddevelopmentisoccurring,thusshapingpolicyandregulationtosupportinnovation.

25、宪法

(1)GeneralIntroduction

Mostcommonly,thetermconstitutionreferstoasetofrulesandprinciplesthatdefinethenatureandextentofgovernment.Mostconstitutionsseektoregulatetherelationshipbetweeninstitutionsofthestate,inabasicsensetherelationshipbetweentheexecutive,legislatureandthejudiciary,butalsotherelationshipofinstitutionswithinthosebranches.Forexample9executivebranchescanbedividedintoaheadofgovernment,governmentdepartments/ministries,executiveagenciesandacivilservice.

Mostconstitutionsalsoattempttodefinetherelationshipbetweenindividualsandthestate,andtoestablishthebroadrightsofindividualcitizens.Itisthusthemostbasiclawofaterritoryfromwhichalltheotherlawsandrulesarehierarchicallyderived:insometerritoriesitisinfactcalled“BasicLaw”.Constitutionsmayalsoprovidethattheirmostbasicprinciplescanneverbeabolished,evenbyamendment.Incaseaformallyvalidamendmentofaconstitutioninfringesontheseprinciples,itmayconstituteaso-calledunconstitutionalconstitutionallaw.

(2)CodifiedConstitutionandUncodifiedConstitution

1)Codifiedconstitution

Moststatesintheworldhavecodifiedconstitutions(alsoknownaswrittenconstitutions).Codifiedconstitutionsareoftentheproductofsomedramaticpoliticalchange,suchasarevolution.Theprocessbywhichacountryadoptsaconstitutioniscloselytiedtothehistoricalandpoliticalcontextdrivingthisfundamentalchange.Statesthathavecodifiedconstitutionsnormallygivetheconstitutionsupremacyoverordinarystatutelaw.Thatis,ifthereisanyconflictbetweenastatuteandthecodifiedconstitution,allorpartofthestatutecanbedeclaredultravires(越权)byacourt,andstruckdownasunconstitutional.IntheUnitedStates,theU.S.SupremeCourtisthefinalinterpreteroftheConstitutionandhasthepowertoruleontheconstitutionalityoftheactionsoftheothertwobranchesofgovernmentaswellasthoseofthestatesandothergovernmentalentities.ThroughjudicialelaborationofthemeaningoftheConstitution,theCourtcanbroadenorlimitthepowersofthePresidentandtheCongress.Insodoing,theCourtbreatheslifeintotheConstitution,makingita“living”documentthatchangesasthenationchanges.

Codifiedconstitutionsnormallyconsistofapreamble,whichsetsforththegoalsofthestateandthemotivationfortheconstitution,andseveralarticlescontainingthesubstantiveprovisions.Thepreamble,whichisomittedinsomeconstitutions,maycontainareferencetoGodand/ortofundamentalvaluesofthestatesuchasliberty,democracyorhumanrights.

2)Uncodifiedconstitution

Asof2010atleastthreestateshaveuncodifiedconstitutions:Israel,NewZealand,andtheUnitedKingdom.Uncodifiedconstitutions(alsoknownasunwrittenconstitutions)aretheproductofan“evolution”oflawsandconventionsovercenturies.Bycontrasttocodifiedconstitutions,uncodifiedconstitutionsincludewrittensourceslikeconstitutionalstatutesenactedbytheParliamentandalsounwrittensourcessuchasconstitutionalconventions,observationofprecedents,royalprerogatives,customandtradition.InthedaysoftheBritishEmpire,theJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncil(枢密院)actedastheconstitutionalcourtformanyoftheBritishcoloniessuchasCanadaandAustraliawhichhadfederalconstitutions.

(2)FunctionsofConstitutions

1)Stateandlegalstructure

Oneofthekeytasksofconstitutionsistoindicatehierarchiesandrelationshipsofpower.Inaunitarystate,theconstitutionwillvestultimateauthorityinonecentraladministrationandlegislature,andjudiciary,thoughthereisoftenadelegationofpowerorauthoritytolocalormunicipalauthorities.Incontrast,afederalformofgovernmentisoneinwhichthestatesformaunionandthesovereignpowerisdividedbetweenacentralgoverningauthorityandthememberstates.TheU.S.Constitutiondelegatescertainpowerstothenationalgovernmentandthestatesretainallpowersnotdelegatedtothenationalgovernment.Therelationshipbetweenthenationalgovernmentandthestategovernmentsisapartnership;neitherpartnerissuperiortotheotherexceptwithintheparticularareaofauthoritygrantedtoitundertheU.S.Constitution.

2)Humanrights

Humanrightsorcivillibertiesformacrucialpartofacountry’sconstitutionandgoverntherightsoftheindividualagainstthestate.TheUnitedStatesandFranceeachhasacodifiedconstitutionwithabillofrights.PerhapsthemostimportantexampleistheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsundertheUNCharter.Theseareintendedtoensurebasicpolitical,socialandeconomicstandardsthatanationorintergovernmentalbodyisobligedtoprovidetoitscitizens.

3)Legislativeprocedure

Anothermainfunctionofconstitutionsmaybetodescribetheprocedurebywhichparliamentsmaylegislate.Forinstance,specialmajoritiesmayberequiredtoaltertheconstitution.Inbicameral(两院制的)legislatures,theremaybeaprocesslaidoutforsecondorthirdreadingsofbillsbeforeanewlawcanenterintoforce.

26、刑法

Oftentheterm“criminallaw”isusedtoincludeallthatisinvolvedin“theadministrationofcriminaljustice”inthebroadestsense.Assoemployeditembracesthreedifferentfields,knowntothelawyeras(1)thesubstantivecriminallaw,(2)criminalprocedure,and(3)specialproblemsintheadministrationandenforcementofcriminaljustice……Thephrase“criminallaw”ismorecommonlyusedtoincludeonlythatpartofthegeneralfieldknownasthesubstantivecriminallaw.

Capitalpunishmentmaybeimposedinsomejurisdictionsforthemostseriouscrimes.Andphysicalorcorporalpunishmentmaystillbeimposedsuchaswhippingorcaning,althoughthesepunishmentsareprohibitedinmuchoftheworld.Aconvictmaybeincarcerated(监禁)inprisonorjailandthelengthofincarcerationmayvaryfromadaytolife.

Criminallawisareflectionofthesocietythatproducesit.InanIslamictheocracy,suchasIran,criminallawwillreflectthereligiousteachingsoftheKoran(《古兰经》);inaCatholiccountry,itwillreflectthetenetsofCatholicism.Inaddition,criminallawwillchangetoreflectchangesinsociety,especiallyattitudechanges.Forinstance,useofmarijuana(大麻)wasonceconsideredaseriouscrimewithharshpenalties,whereastodaythepenaltiesinmoststatesarerelativelylight.Aspublictoleranceofmarijuanausegrew,theseverityofthepenaltieswasreduced.Asasocietyadvances,itsjudgmentsaboutcrimeandpunishmentchange.

(2)ElementsofaCrime

Obviously,differentcrimesrequiredifferentbehaviors,buttherearecommonelementsnecessaryforprovingallcrimes.First,theprohibitedbehaviordesignatedasacrimemustbeclearlydefinedsothatareasonablepersoncanbeforewarnedthatengaginginthatbehaviorisillegal.Second,theaccusedmustbeshowntohavepossessedtherequisiteintenttocommitthecrime.Third,thestatemustprovecausation.Finally,thestatemustprovebeyondareasonabledoubtthatthedefendantcommittedthecrime.

1)actusreus(犯罪行为)

Thefirstelementofcrimeistheactusreus.Actusisanactoractionandreusisapersonjudiciallyaccusedofacrime.Therefore,actusreusisliterallytheactiono£apersonaccusedofacrime.Acriminalstatutemustclearlydefineexactlywhatactisdeemed“guilty”—thatis,theexactbehaviorthatisbeingprohibited.Thatisdonesothatallpersonsareputonnoticethatiftheyperformtheguiltyact,theywillbeliableforcriminalpunishment.Unlesstheactusreusisclearlydefined,onemightnotknowwhetherornotone'sbehaviorisillegal.

Actusreusmaybeaccomplishedbyanaction,bythreatofaction,orexceptionally,byanomissiontoact,whichisalegaldutytoact.Wheretheactusreusisafailuretoact,theremustbeadutyofcare.Suchadutycanarisethroughcontract,avoluntaryundertaking,abloodrelation,andoccasionallythroughone'sofficialposition.Dutyalsocanarisefromone'sowncreationofadangeroussituation.

2)mensrea(犯罪意图)

Asecondelementofacrimeismensrea.Mensreareferstoanindividualstateofmindwhenacrimeiscommitted.Whileactusreusisprovenbyphysicaloreyewitnessevidence,mensreaismoredifficulttoascertain.Thefactfinder(juryorjudge)mustdetermineforitselfwhethertheaccusedhadthenecessaryintenttocommittheact.

Alowerthresholdofmensreaissatisfiedwhenadefendantrecognizesanactisdangerousbutdecidestocommititanyway.Thisisrecklessness.Wrongfulnessofintentalsomayvarytheseriousnessofanoffense.Akillingcommittedwithspecificintenttokillorwithconsciousrecognitionthatdeathorseriousbodilyharmwillresult,wouldbemurder,whereasakillingaffectedbyrecklessactslackingsuchaconsciousnesscouldbemanslaughter.

3)Causation(因果关系)

Thenextelementiscausation.Oftenthephrase“butfor”(若非—则无)isusedtodeterminewhethercausationhasoccurred.Forexample,wemightsay"CainkilledAbel”,bywhichwereallymean“CaincausedAbel’sdeath.”Inotherwords,“ButforCain'sact,Abelwouldstillbealive.”Causation,then,means“butfor”theactionsofA,Bwouldnothavebeenharmed.Incriminallaw,causationisanelementthatmustbeprovenbeyondareasonabledoubt.

4)ProofbeyondaReasonableDoubt

Inviewofthefactthatincriminalcaseswearedealingwiththelifeandlibertyoftheaccusedperson,aswellasthestigmaaccompanyingconviction,thelegalsystemplacesstronglimitsonthepowerofthestatetoconvictapersonofacrime.CriminaldefendantsarepresumedinnocentThestatemustovercomethispresumptionofinnocencebyprovingeveryelementoftheoffensechargedagainstthedefendantbeyondareasonabledoubttothesatisfactionofallthejurors.ThisrequirementistheprimarywayAmericansystemminimizestheriskofconvictinganinnocentperson.

Thestatemustproveitscasewithinaframeworkofproceduralsafeguardsthataredesignedtoprotecttheaccused.Thestate’sfailuretoproveanymaterialelementofitscaseresultsintheaccusedbeingacquittedorfoundnotguilty,eventhoughheorshemayactuallyhavecommittedthecrimecharged.

(3)StrictLiability

Inmodernsociety,somecrimesrequirenomoremensrea,andtheyareknownasstrictliabilityoffenses.Forinstance,undertheRoadTrafficAct1988itisastrictliabilityoffencetodriveavehiclewithanalcoholconcentrationabovetheprescribedlimit.

27、被告人的主要权利

TherearetwofundamentalaspectsoftheU.S.criminaljusticesystem—thepresumptionthatthedefendantisinnocentandtheburdenontheprosecutiontoproveguiltbeyondareasonabledoubt.Furthermore,criminaldefendantshaveotherrightstoo.

(1)TheDefendant'sRighttoRemainSilent

TheFifthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitutionprovidesthatadefendantcannotbecompelledinanycriminalcasetobeawitnessagainsthimself.Inshort,thedefendanthastherightto“sitmute”.Theprosecutorcannotcallthedefendantasawitness,norcanajudgeordefenseattorneyforcethedefendanttotestifyifthedefendantchoosestoremainsilent.Bycontrast,adefendantmaybecalledasawitnessinacivilcase.

Adefendantinacriminaltrialmaychoosewhetherornottogiveevidenceintheproceedings.Further,thereisnogeneraldutytoassistthepolicewiththeirinquiries.

TheSupremeCourtruledthatthegovernmentcannotpunishacriminaldefendantforexercisinghisrighttosilence,byallowingtheprosecutortoaskthejurytodrawaninferenceofguiltfromthedefendant'srefusaltotestifyinhisowndefense.TheCourtoverturnedasunconstitutionalunderthefederalconstitutionaprovisionoftheCaliforniastateconstitutionthatexplicitlygrantedsuchpowertoprosecutors.

(2)TheDefendant'sRighttoConfront(对质)Witness

The“confrontationclause”oftheSixthAmendmentgivesdefendantstherighttobeconfrontedbythewitnessesagainstthem.Implicitinthisrightistherighttocross-examinewitnesses—thatis,therighttorequirethewitnessestocometocourt,“lookthedefendantintheeye”,andsubjectthemselvestoquestioning

bythedefense.TheSixthAmendmentpreventssecrettrials,andexceptforlimitedexceptions,forbidsprosecutorsfromprovingadefendant'sguiltwithwrittenstatementsfromabsentwitnesses.LikemostoftheprotectionsgivencriminaldefendantsintheConstitution,therightofconfrontingawitnesshasitsoriginsinEnglishcommonlaw.Untilthesixteenthcentury,therightofconfrontingwitnesswasnearlyabsentfromtheAnglo-Americanlegaltradition.Then,withtheintroductionoftherighttotrialbyanimpartialjuryandthefirmestablishmentofthepresumptionofinnocence,therightofconfrontationcametobeseenasanintegralpartoftheproperdefenserightsoftheaccused.

Throughcross-examination,defendantsareallowedtotestthereliabilityandcredibilityofwitnesses.However,therightofcross-examinationalsohaslimits.Forexample,defendantsmaybedeniedtherighttoaskquestionsthatareirrelevant,collateral,confusing,repetitive,orprejudicial.

(3)TheDefendant'sRighttoaPublicTrial

TheSixthAmendmentguaranteespublictrialsincriminalcases.Thisisanimportantright,becausethepresenceincourtroomsofadefendant'sfamilyandfriends,ordinarycitizensandthepresscanhelpensurethatthegovernmentobserveotherimportantrulesassociatedwithtrials.

Inafewsituations,normallyinvolvingchildren,thecourtwillclosethecourttothepublic.Forexample,judgescanbarpublicfromattendingcaseswhendefendantsarechargedwithsexualassaultsagainstchildren.Inrecentyears,legislatorshavebeenconcernedaboutdefendantswhoescapepunishmentforsexuallymolestingyoungchildrenbecausethechildrenareafraidtotestifyinthedefendant'spresence.Toaddressthisproblem,manystateshaveenactedspecialrulesthatauthorizejudges----incertainsituations----toallowchildrentotestifyviaclosedcircuittelevision.Thedefendantcanseethechildonatelevisionmonitor,butthechildcannotseethedefendant.Thedefenseattorneycanbepersonallypresentwherethechildistestifyingandcancross-examinethechild.

(4)TheDefendant’sRighttobeRepresentedbyanAttorney

TheSixthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitutionprovidesthat"inallcriminalprosecutions,theaccusedshallenjoytheright...tohavetheassistanceofcounselforhisdefense."Ajudgemustappointanattorneyforindigentdefendants(defendantswhocannotaffordtohireattorneys)atgovernmentexpenseonlyifthedefendantsmightbeactuallyimprisonedforaperiodofmorethansixmonthsforthecrime.Asapracticalmatter,judgesroutinelyappointattorneysforindigentsinnearlyallcasesinwhichajailsentenceisapossibility.

Inaseriesofcases,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthatAmericanindigentsdohavearighttocounsel,butonlyincriminalcases.Thefederalgovernmentandsomestateshaveofficesofpublicdefenderswhichassistindigentdefendants,whileotherstateshavesystemsforoutsourcingtheworktoprivatelawyers.Ajudgenormallyappointstheattorneyforanindigentdefendantatthedefendant's1firstcourtappearance.Formostdefendants,thefirstcourtappearanceiseitheranarraignment(传讯)orabail(保释)hearing.

Thejobofdefensecounselattrialistoprepareandofferavigorousdefenseonbehalfoftheaccused.Aproperdefenseofteninvolvesthepresentationofevidenceandtheexaminationofwitness,allofwhichrequirescarefulthoughtandplanning.Goodattorneys,likequalitycraftspeopleeverywhere,mayfindthemselvesemotionallycommittedtotheoutcomeoftrialsinwhichtheyareinvolved.

28、合同法

Acontractisalegallyenforceableagreementbetweentwoormorepartieswithmutualobligations.Contractscanbeinwriting,orallyorverballyagreedupon(parolcontracts)orcreatedthroughtheactingsoftheparties.Theremedyatlawforbreachofcontractisusually“damages”(损害赔偿)ormonetarycompensation.Inequity,theremedycanbespecificperformanceofthecontractoraninjunction.TheimportanceofcontractstabilityisemphasizedbyArticleI§10oftheU.S.Constitution,whichprovidesthat“NoStateshall...passany…LawimpairingtheObligationofContracts.”Atcommonlaw,theelementsofacontractaremutualassentandconsideration(对价).

(1)MutualAssent:OfferandAcceptance

Atcommonlaw,mutualassentistypicallyreachedthroughofferandacceptance,thatis,whenanofferismetwithanacceptancethatdoesnotvarytheoffer’sterms.Therequirementisknownasthe“mirrorimage”rule.Ifapurportedacceptancedoesvarythetermsofanoffer,itisnotanacceptancebutacounterofferand,therefore,simultaneouslyarejectionoftheoriginaloffer.

(2)ClassificationofContract

1)Expresscontractandimpliedcontract.

Anexpresscontractisoneinwhichthetermsarestatedbytheparties;itmaybeeitheranoralorwrittencontract.Animpliedcontractisonethatisinferredfromtheconductoftheparties.

2)Bilateralcontractandunilateralcontract.

Abilateralcontractisoneinwhichthepartiesexchangepromisestodosomefutureact.Forexample,youagreewiththecardealerthatyouwillpayforyourcarwhenyoutakedeliverynextweek.Eachofyouhaspromisedtodosomethinginthefuture:thedealertodeliverthecarandyoutopayforit.Incontrast,aunilateralcontractisoneinwhichonepartyactsimmediatelyinresponsetotheoffer.

3)Executorycontractandexecutedcontract.

Anexecutorycontractisoneinwhichsomeorallofthetermsareuncompleted----thecardealinaboveparagraph,forexample.Anexecutedcontract,then,isonewhichalltermshavebeencompleted.Forinstance,youhaveeatenyourmealandpaidyourbillattherestaurant.

4)Void,voidableandunenforceablecontract.(无效、可撤销和不可强制执行的合同)

Theterms“void,voidableandunenforceable”arerelevantinsituationswherethereisabreachofcontractorwhenonepartyfailstocomplywiththetermsoftheagreement.Avoidcontractisanullityfromitsbeginning,anddamagesdonotresult.Avoidablecontractisonethatisbindinguntilitisdisaffirmedorcanceledbythepartywiththeauthoritytodoso.Inmanyways,marriageisacontractthateitherpartymayrescindbyobtainingadivorce.Unenforceablecontractsarethosethatmeetthebasiccommonlawelementsforcontractsbutlacksomeotheradditionalle-galrequirementssuchasbeingsignedinfrontofanotarypublic(公证人).

29、侵权法

Atort,incommonlawjurisdictions,isawrong(不法行为)thatinvolvesabreachofacivilduty(otherthanacontractualduty)owedtosomeoneelse.Itisdifferentiatedfromacrime,whichinvolvesabreachofadutyowedtosocietyingeneral.Thoughmanyactsarebothtortsandcrimes,prosecutionsforcrimearemostlytheresponsibilityofthestate,privateprosecutionsbeingrarelyused;whereasanypartywhohasbeeninjuredmaybringalawsuitfortort.Onewhocommitsatortiousactiscalledatortfeasor(侵权行为人).

Apersonwhosuffersatortiousinjuryisentitledtoreceive“damages”(损害赔偿金),usuallymone-tarycompensation,fromthepersonorpeopleresponsibleforthoseinjuries.Tortlawdefineswhatalegalinjuryisand,therefore,whetherapersonmaybeheldliableforaninjuryheorshehascaused.Legalinjuriesarenotlimitedtophysicalinjuries.Theymayalsoincludeemotional,economic,orreputationalinjuriesaswellasviolationsofprivacy,property,orconstitutionalrights.Tortcasesthereforecomprisesuchvariedtopicsasautoaccidents,falseimprisonment,defamation,productliability(fordefectiveconsumerproducts),copyrightinfringement,andenvironmentalpollution,amongmanyothers.

Inmuchofthecommonlawworld,themostprominenttortliabilityisnegligence.Iftheinjuredpartycanprovethatthepersonbelievedtohavecausedtheinjuryactednegligently,thatis,withouttakingreasonablecaretoavoidinjuringothers----tortlawwillallowcompensation.

Furthermore,tortlawalsorecognizesintentionaltorts,whereapersonhasintentionallyactedinawaythatharmsanother,and“strictliability”orquasi-tort,whichallowsrecoveryundercertaincircumstanceswithouttheneedtodemonstratenegligence.Hence,tortsmaybedividedintoNegligence,IntentionalTorts,andQuasi-Torts.

(1)Negligence

Thestandardtortactionisnegligence.Thetortofnegligenceprovidesacauseofactionleadingtodamages,ortorelief,ineachcasedesignedtoprotectlegalrights,includingthoseofpersonalsafety,property,and,insomecases,intangibleeconomicinterests.Negligenceactionsincludeclaimscomingprimarilyfromcaraccidentsandpersonalinjuryaccidentsofmanykindsincludingclinicalnegligence,worker'snegligenceandsoforth.Productliabilitycases,suchasthoseinvolvingwarranties,mayormaynotbeconsiderednegligenceactions.

Negligenceisabreachoflegaldutytotakecareresultingindamagetotheplaintiff.Thelegalburdenofprovingelementsofnegligencefallsupontheplaintiff.Theelementsindeterminingtheliabilityfornegligenceare:

a)Thetortfeasorowedadutyofcare;

b)Therewasabreachofthatduty;

c)Thetortfeasordirectlycausedtheinjury,thatis,therewasproximatecause;

d)Theplaintiffsuffereddamageasare,suitofthatbreach;

Thereareanumberofsituationsinwhichthecourtsrecognizetheexistenceofadutyofcare.Inadditiontoageneraldutyofcare,adutymayalsoariseasaresultofsomesortofspecialrelationshipbetweentheparties.Examplesincludeoneroad-usertoanother,employertoemployee,manufacturertoconsumer,doctortopatientandsolicitortoclient.

(2)Intentionaltorts

Intentionaltortsincludecertaintortsarisingfromtheoccupation/useoflandandtrespasstochattels.Anydirectinterference,suchasenteringlandwithouttheoccupier'sconsentordispossessinghimofabook,ahat,orapictureisactionable.Severalintentionaltortsdonotinvolveland.Examplesincludefalseimprisonment,thetortofunlawfullyarrestingordetainingsomeone,anddefamation(insomejurisdictionssplitintolibelandslander),wherefalseinformationisbroadcastedanddamagestheplaintiff'sreputation.

(3)Quasi-torts

Quasi-tortmeansatortforwhichanon-perpetratorisheldliable.Inaquasitort,apersonwhodidnotactuallycommitawrongisheldliable.Forinstance,amasterwillbeheldliableforatortcommittedbyaservantundertheprincipleofvicariousliability.

(4)StrictLiability

Tortliabilityiscustomarilydividedintointentionaltortliability,negligenceliabilityandstrictliability.Strictliabilitymakessomepersonsresponsiblefordamagestheiractionsorproductscause,regardlessofany“fault”ontheirpart.Strictliabilitymainlyincludesbutisnotrestrictedtothefollowingsituations:

AbnormallyDangerous(ultrahazardous)Activities:Strictliablityoftenapplieswhenpeopleengageininherentlyhazardousactivities,suchasburstingdams,“blow-out”oilwellstestingrocketmotors,orblastingonaconstructionsite.Ifaplaintiffisinjuredbytheseactivities----nomatterhowcarefulthedoerwas----he/sheisliablefortheinjury.

ProductsLiability:Strictliabilityalsomayapplyinthecaseofcertainmanufacturedproducts.Instrictproductliability,typicallyanyonewhoisengagedinthestreamoftheproduct(fromthemanufacturertothewhole-salertotheretailer,orallofthem)canbeheldresponsibleiftheproductwasdefectiveandsomeonewasinjured.ThereisnoneedtoprovenegligencebuttheinjuredpartymustProvethattheproductwasdefective.

30、公司法

Corporatelawisapartofabroadercompanieslaw(orlawofbusinessassociations).InUK,businessassociationscanincludepartnerships,trusts(likeapensionfund),corporationslimitedbysharesorcompanieslimitedbyguarantee(likesomeuniversitiesorcharities).UScorporationsaregenerallyclassifiedintoCcorporations,SCorporations,closecorporations,publiccorporations,professionalcorporationsandnon-for-profitcorporations.

Thefourcharacteristicsofthemoderncorporationare:

(1)SeparateLegalPersonalityofthecorporation(therighttosueandbesuedinitsownnamei.e.thelawtreatsthecompanyasahumanbeing);

(2)LimitedLiabilityoftheshareholders(sothatwhenthecompanyisinsolvent,theyonlyowethemoneythattheysubscribedforshares);

(3)Shares(usuallyonastockexchangesuchastheLondonStockExchange,NewYorkStockExchange);

(4)DelegatedManagement(inotherwords,controlofthecompanyplacedinthehandsofaboardofdirectors).

Oneofthekeylegalfeaturesofcorporationsistheirseparatelegalpersonality,alsoknownas“personhood"orbeing“artificialpersons”.However,theseparatelegalpersonalitywasnotconfirmedunderEnglishlawuntil1895bytheHouseo£LordsinSalomonv.Salomon&Co.,Ltd.

Therearecertainspecificsituationswherecourtsaregenerallypreparedto“piercethecorporateveil”(揭开公司面纱)tolookdirectlyat,andimposeliabilitydirectlyontheindividualsbehindthecompany.Themostcommonlycitedexamplesare:

a)wherethecompanyisamerefaade(空壳);

b)wherethecompanyiseffectivelyjusttheagentofitsmembersorcontrollers;

c)wherearepresentativeofthecompanyhastakensomepersonalresponsibilityforanaction;

d)wherethecompanyisengagedinfraudorothercriminalwrongdoing;

e)wherepermittedbystatute(forexample,manyjurisdictionsprovideforshareholderliabilitywhereacompanybreachesenvironmentalprotectionlaws);

f)inmanyjurisdictions,whereacompanycontinuestotradedespiteforeseeablebankruptcythedirectorscanbeforcedtoaccountfortradinglossespersonally.

THE END
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