Theacademicdeansarethechiefexecutivesandadministratorsofthevariouscollegesorotheracademicdivisionsofaninstitution.Theresponsibilitiesofdeanstypicallyincludeimplementingpoliciesestablishedbytheboardoftrusteesandthepresident;preparingthebudgetsandoverseeingthespendingoffundswithintheacademicdivision;supervisingthefacultyandincreasingstudentenrollmentsintheircollegeorschool.
Faculty(教职员工)
Incollegeanduniversities,thegeneralrolesoffacultyareteaching,research,andservicetotheinstitution,theprofession,andthecommunity.Facultymembersmayalsoserveasadviserstostudentorganizationsandasmembersofvariouscollegecommittees.
Universitiestendtobemoremultipurposethancollegesintheirmissionandfunctions.Theyareexpectedtopublishtheirfindingsinscholarlybooksandjournalssothatscholarsinotheruniversitiesareawareoftheirworkandcontributions.Facultymembersusuallyincludethefindingsoftheirresearchinthecoursestheyteachtostudents.
Mostfacultyatlargeuniversitiesadvisestudentsintheiracademicprogramsanddirectgraduatestudentsinpreparingtheirmaster’sthesesanddoctoraldissertations.(Athesisoradissertationisanextensiveresearchpaperusuallyrequiredforthesatisfactorycompletionofanadvanceddegree).
Aftertheyarehiredbyacollegeoruniversity,facultymembersreceiveafacultyrankaspartoftheirappointment.Thosewhoarebeginningtheirteachingcareerandhavelittlepreviousexperienceentertheprofessionaseitherinstructorsorassistantprofessors.Therankofassistantprofessorisslightlyhigherthanthatofinstructor.Afteranassistantprofessorhasacquiredsometeachingexperience,conductedresearch,publishedarticlesorbooks,andservedoninstitutionalanddepartmentalcommittees,heorsheisusuallypromotedtoassociateprofessor.Thehighestrankofthefacultyisfullprofessor,sometimessimplycalledprofessor.
Tosavemoneyandtobeabletoquicklyrespondtochangingtrendsineducation,collegesanduniversitiesincreasinglyemploylargenumbersofpart-timeteachers.Part-timefacultyusuallyreceivelowersalariesthanfacultywithfull-timepositions,forcingmanytoteachatseveralcollegesoruniversitiesinordertoearnanadequateincome.Criticsbelievethatrelianceonpart-timefacultyandteachingassistantsdecreasesthequalityofinstruction.
Instruction(授课)
Collegesanduniversitiesstrivetoinformstudentsofestablishedprinciplesofknowledgeaswellasofthemostrecentdevelopmentsinacademicresearch.Whenstudentsenrollinacourse,professorsprovidethemwithasyllabus,oroutline,ofthecourse.Thesyllabusdescribeshowthecoursewillbetaught.Itincludesalistoftherequiredbooksandarticlesstudentsaretoread;theschedulesanddescriptionsofcourseexaminations,papers,andotherassignments;andanexplanationofmethodsusedtoevaluateorgradestudentperformance.Methodsofinstructionmaybeasfollows.
Lecture(讲座)
Thelecturemethodistheoldestapproachtoteachinginhighereducation.Today,facultywhousethelecturemethodtypicallyspeaktolargenumbersofstudentsinaformalandveryorganizedmanner.Thefacultymemberpresentshisorherdescriptionofthekeyideasofasubject,andgivesinterpretationsthatoftenincludecurrentresearchontheissue.Followingthepresentation,lecturerssometimesinvitestudentstoaskquestionsonthematerial.
LectureDiscussion(主题讨论)
Manyfacultymembersemployacombinationoflecturesandsmallgroupdiscussions.Inthelecture-discussionmethod,professorslecturetoalargegroupofstudentsandthendividetheclassintosmallerdiscussionsections.Theyleadthediscussiononthelecturetopic,answerquestions,andtestthestudentswithquizzesorexams.
Discussion(讨论)
Professorsoftenuseadiscussionformatofinstructionininstitutionsthatemphasizeahighlevelofteacher-studentinteraction.Inthisteachingmethod,theprofessormeetswithasmallnumberofstudentsandteachesthecoursebyleadingdiscussionswithstudents.
LaboratorySections(实验室教学)
Sciencecoursestypicallyincludelaboratorysectionsinwhichstudentsconductexperimentsthatreplicateorillustrateascientificprincipleintroducedinthecourse.Laboratorysectionsusuallyaugmentlecturesordiscussions.Foreignlanguagecoursesalsosometimesincludelaboratorysectionsinwhichstudentslistentoaudiotapesoruseotherinteractiveformsofinstruction.
Seminars(研讨会)
Seminarsconsistofsmallgroupsofstudentswhomeetwithaprofessortoresearchordiscussaspecifictopicinhistory,literature,orsomeotheracademicfield.Seminarsaremorecommoningraduateprograms.Participantsinaseminarusuallypreparescholarlyresearchpapersandcritiqueoneanother’swork.
ClinicalExperiencesandInternships(实习)
Academicprogramsinprofessionalfieldssuchassocialworkorteachereducationoftenrequireclinicalexperiencesandinternships.Intheseprograms,studentsspendtimeataclinic,agency,orschooltoobservetheworkofaprofessionalinthefield.Insomecasesthestudentmayparticipateintheworkasanaide.
CommunityService(社区服务、社会实践)
Anincreasingnumberofcollegeanduniversityprogramsrequirestudentstoengageinacommunityserviceprojectaspartoftheirdegreeprogram.Tofulfillthisrequirement,studentsmayassistinclinics,participateinreadingprogramsatlocalschools,orvolunteerathomelessshelters.Collegesanduniversitiesthatrequiretheseprogramsconsidercommunityserviceanessentialpartofawell-roundededucation.
DistanceEducation(远程教育)
Inadditiontoconventionalmethodsofinstructionconductedoncampus,manycollegesanduniversitiesofferdistanceeducationprogramsthatusetechnologytocarryinstructiontostudentsinoff-campuslocations.Distanceeducationprogramsenablefacultyandstudentstocommunicatewithoneanotherbyusingsuchtechnologiesascomputers,artificialsatellites,radio,andtelevision.Theseprogramsappealtomanyinstitutionsthatwishtoreducecosts,becausethetechnologyenablesrelativelyfewfacultymemberstoteachalargenumberofstudents.Distanceeducationalsoappealstostudentswho,foranynumberofreasons,cannotattendclassesoncampus.
CoursesofStudy(学习课程)
Mostundergraduatedegreeprogramsrequirestudentstocompleteaconcentrationofcourses,calledamajor,inaparticularacademicfieldsuchashistory,biology,mathematics,business,orcomputerscience.Manycollegesanduniversitiesencourageorrequirestudentstocompleteanacademicminoraswellasamajor(辅修和主修).Aminoralsorequiresaconcentrationofcoursesinaparticularfield,butwithlessstringentrequirements.Somestudentsbroadentheircourseofstudystillfurtherbypursuingtwoindependentmajors.
Mostcollegesanduniversitiesalsoofferinterdisciplinarymajorsoracademicprogramsthatallowstudentstotakecoursesinanumberoffields.Forexample,studentswhomajorinaninternationalstudiesprogrammaytakecoursesinhistory,economics,politicalscience,foreignlanguage,andotherfields.
StudentLife(日常生活)
Becauseeachcollegeoruniversityfeaturesadifferentcampusenvironment,theday-to-daylifeofstudentsvarieswidelyfromoneschooltoanother.Thefollowingsectionsdescribesomeofthemostcommonfeaturesofstudentlifeatfour-yearcollegesanduniversities.
Housing(住)
Someinstitutionsrequirethatundergraduatestudentsliveincollege-oruniversity-approvedhousing,especiallyduringtheirfirstandsecondyears.Atotherinstitutions,studentsmayliveeitheronoroffcampus.Somestudentsorganizetheirowncooperativelivingarrangementsandjointlyrentapartmentsorhousestoreducehousingandfoodexpenses.
Moststudentswholiveoncampusliveinresidencehallsownedandoperatedbythecollegeoruniversity.Thesefacilities,knownasdormitories,mayberestrictedtoasinglesexoccupancy.Residencehallsusuallyhavetheirownstudentgoverningorganizationsthatsetrulesandproceduresforthefacilities.Theyalsomayprovidefoodserviceindiningroomsandcafeterias.
FoodServices(饮食)
Studentswholiveoncampusmayeatmealsintheirresidencehall,incampuscafeterias,orinothercampusdiningrooms.Mostcollegesanduniversitieshavebuildings—oftencalledstudentunions—thatprovideavarietyofservices,includingfoodserviceindiningroomsandcafeterias.
StudentServices(学生服务)
Collegesanduniversitiesprovideawiderangeofservicestostudents.Manyprovidestudenthealthservicesinclinicsstaffedbyhealthcareprofessionals.Mostschoolsalsoofferstudenthealthinsurancethathelpspaymedicalcosts,ifneeded.
Collegesanduniversitiesusuallyprovidelearningcenterstoassiststudentswhoareexperiencingdifficultiesintheirclasses.Counselingservicesarealsoavailableforstudentsdealingwithpersonaldifficulties.Careerplacementcentersprovidehelpinmakingcareerdecisionsandfindingjobsaftercompletingcollege.
ExtracurricularActivities(课外活动)
Collegesanduniversitiesofferarangeofextracurricularactivitiesthatcanenhancetheoverallexperienceofcollegestudents.Largeuniversitiestypicallyhaveprogramsinfootball,basketball,soccer,volleyball,tennis,swimming,track,andothersports.Intercollegiatesportingeventsarealsopopularattractionsforotherstudentsandalumnitoattendasspectators.
Collegeanduniversitystudentsmayalsoparticipateinstudentgovernmentorserveonvariousinstitutionalcommittees.Thestudentgovernmentadvocatesstudentconcernstotheschoolfacultyandadministration,andoffersemploymentorvolunteeropportunitiesforstudents.Studentgovernmentsgenerallyallocatefundstovariousstudentorganizationssuchasnewspapers,dramagroups,andfilmsocieties.
ProblemsofStudentLife(问题)
Collegesanduniversitieshavemanyofthesameproblemsfoundinthelargersociety,suchasviolenceandcrime.Schoolpoliciestrytogoverntheseproblemsandreducetheireffects.Manyschoolshavealsointroducedpoliciesaimedateliminatingthewidespreadproblemofbingedrinking,inwhichstudentsconsumedangerousamountsofalcoholicdrinksatcampusparties.
PersonalInterview(面试)
Sometimesanapplicantmayalsomeetwithafacultymember.Interviewswithanadmissionsofficerallowtheadmissionsofficertofurtherevaluatetheapplicant’sstrengths.Inaddition,theyoffertheapplicantanopportunitytoaskquestionsabouttheinstitutionandtodemonstratepersonalcommunicationskills.
CampusVisits(校园参观)
Beforemakingadecisionaboutwhichcollegetoattend,mostapplicantsfinditusefultovisitoneormoreschools,meetwithadmissionspersonnel,andtakeguidedtoursofthecampus.Mostcollegesanduniversitiesarrangesuchvisitsandencourageprospectivestudentstovisitclassesandvariousextracurricularactivitiestogetanideaofthestyleoflifeandlearningattheparticularinstitution.
Tuition(学费)
Thecostofattendingcollegesanduniversitieshassteadilyincreasedsincethe1980s.Mostpublicinstitutionshaveraisedtuitionratestocompensateforthelossoffunds.Meanwhile,bothpublicandprivateinstitutionshavehadtomeetincreasedexpendituresforfacultyandstaffsalaries,construction,andgeneraloperations.
IntheUnitedStates,theaveragetuitionwithroomandboardatafour-yearpubliccollegeforin-stateresidentsduringthe1978-1979academicyearwas$1,994.Bythe1996-1997schoolyear,thefigurehadreached$7,331.Atprivatefour-yearschools,tuition,room,andboardnationwideincreasedfromanaverageof$4,514toanaverageof$18,476.
Morethan10percentoffull-timecollegestudentsworkfull-timetopayfortheircollegeeducation.Mostothersworkpart-timetohelpoffsetthecostsofattendingcollege.
FinancialAid(经济支持)
Studentsmayapplyforandreceivefinancialaidtohelppaytuitionandothercostsofattendingcollege.Aidmaybeeitheragrantbasedonfinancialneed,amerit-basedfinancialawardgiventothestudent,oraloanthatthestudentmustrepaywithinterestinthefuture.
Degrees(学位)
Requirementsforthecompletionofacademicdegreesvaryfromoneinstitutiontoanother.Themostcommondegreeisthebachelor’sdegree,whichisusuallyconferredatthecompletionofafour-yearprogramofstudy.Bachelor’sdegreesareawardedintheliberalartsandsciences,education,business,andotherfields.Thebachelor’sdegreemaybeabachelorofarts(B.A.)orbachelorofscience(B.S.)degree,dependingonthemajorcourseofstudycompletedbythestudent.Forexample,achemistrymajorwouldreceiveaB.S.degree,whereasahistorymajorwouldreceiveaB.A.degree.
Astudentmaypursueamaster’sdegreeaftercompletionofabachelor’sdegree.Studentspursuingamaster’sdegreemustusuallyalsopasssomesortofcomprehensiveexaminationorcompleteaproject.Master’sdegreeexamsmaybewrittenororal,oracombinationofboth.Manymaster’sdegreeprogramsrequiresatisfactorycompletionofawrittenthesis.Master’sdegreesareusuallyeithermasterofarts(M.A.)ormasterofscience(M.S.)degrees,dependingonthefieldofspecialization.
Doctoratesarethehighestdegreesconferredbyuniversities.Mostdoctoraldegreesarethedoctorofphilosophy(Ph.D.)degree,althoughrecipientsofthisdegreemayhavestudiedanynumberofacademicfieldsotherthanphilosophy.Theymustresearchandwriteadissertationonanoriginaltopic,andthensuccessfullydefendthedissertationbeforeacommitteeofprofessorsinthefield.(答辩)
三、体育锻炼(Exercise)
Introduction
Thetermisusuallyusedinreferencetoanyactivitythatpromotesphysicalfitness.Althoughmusclecontractionisthecommonelementofallformsofexercise,manyotherorgansandsystemsareaffected,forexample,theheartandlungs.Manypeoplealsofindthatregularexerciseenhancestheirsenseofmentalwell-beingalongwiththeirgeneralphysicalhealth.
Todaythereisanincreasingemphasisonpreventivemedicine,ormaintaininghealth,partlyasaresultoftheincreasingcostsofhealthcareandourgreaterawarenessoftheeffectsoflifestyleonhealthandlongevity.Overone-quarterofAmericans(three-quartersbysomestandards)aresignificantlyoverweightandareatriskforawidevarietyofhealthproblems.
AerobicExercise(有氧运动)
Aerobicexerciseusesoxygentokeeplargemusclegroupsmovingcontinuouslyatanintensitythatcanbemaintainedforatleast20minutes.Aerobicexerciseincludeswalking,jogging,andswimming,andistheformrecommendedforreducingtheriskofheartdiseaseandincreasingendurance.