1Inthe1970s,thepackagingindustryfacedanumberofchallenges.Thetwooilcrisesof1973and1978producedasituationinwhichenergyconservationbecameatoppriority.Environmentalgroupswereusingpackagingintheircampaignsasasymbolofthe“throwaway”society.Bythe1980s,theemphasiswasshifting.Peoplewerelessworriedabouttheenergybeingusedandmoreconcernedaboutwhathappenedtothewaste.Environmentalgroupsarguedthatpackagingshouldbereducedtohelpingsolvethe“wasteproblem”.Companiesarealsofacedwiththeproblemthatconsumersoftensaythattheythinkpackagingisawasteofresources.
2Foreconomicreasons,companiesdesignpackagingtousejustenough,andnomore,materialthanisneededtoensurethatgoodssurvivethedistributionchainandaredeliveredtoconsumersingoodcondition.Packagingisasignificantfraction---between20%and25%byweight–ofmunicipalsolidwaste,whichislargelyhouseholdwaste.Whattheconsumerdoesnotseeisthathouseholddustbinwastemakesuplessthan20%ofthetotalsolidwastefromallsourcessenttolandfillinatypicalEuropeancountry.Landfillisdominatedbyindustrialandconstructionwaste.Householdpackagingaccountsforlessthan5%byweightorvolume.
3Ratherthanrespondtotheseissuesindividually,companiesinthepackagingsectordecidedtosetupajointbodyknownastheIndustryCouncilforPackagingandtheEnvironment(INCPEN)tocarryoutresearchintotheenvironmentalandsocialeffectsofpackaging.INCPENproducedthefirstdetailedestimatesoftheamountofpackagingthatentersthewastestreamanditsrelationshiptototalwastegeneration.Ithascommissionedstudiesintotheenergyrequirementsofpackagingproductionandpackagingdistributionsystems,andithascarriedout6surveysoflitter.Morerecently,ithaspublishedareportontheenvironmentalimpactofpackaginginUKfoodsupplysystem.Thefindingsfromthisresearchhavebeenusedtopromotegoodpackagingpractice,andtoinformlegislatorsandconsumersabouttheroleofpackaging.
4Atthesametime,therearecompensatingdevelopmentsthatwilltendtowardsreducedpackaging.Forexample,manycompanies,especiallyintheretailsector,areincreasinglydesigningallthepackagingneededtoprotectgoodsascompletesystems.Thismakesmoreeffectiveuseofresources.
5Today,INCPEN’smajortaskistodevelopeffectiveworkingpartnershipswithgovernmentregulators,toensurethatpolicyonpackaginggoeshandinhandwiththemajorneedsofsustainabledevelopment,ratherthansimplyseekingtoreducethequantitiesofpackagingmaterialsused.Currentrestrictivelawsonpackagingneedtobereplacedwithpoliciesthatenablecompaniestodeveloppackagingsystemsthatwillhelpmakemoreefficientuseofresourcesingettinggoodsfromthepointofproductiontoconsumption.
ListofHeadings
A)Managingwaste
B)Packagingisnottheworstwastegenerator.
C)Alarmbellsringoverenergyconservation.
D)Factorsleadingtoreducedpackaging
E)Certainpackaginglawsneedtobechanged.
F)INCPENcommissionsstudies.
G)Environmentalpressuresonthepackagingindustry
H)TheroleofINCPEN
The1973oilcrisisfirstbeganonOctober17,1973whentheOrganizationofArabPetroleumExportingCountries(OAPEC),consistingoftheArabmembersofOPECplusEgyptandSyria,announcedasaresultoftheongoingYomKippurWar,thattheywouldnolongershippetroleumtonationsthathadsupportedIsraelinitsconflictwithSyriaandEgypt.ThisincludedtheUnitedStatesanditsalliesinWesternEurope.
Aboutthesametime,OPECmembersagreedtousetheirleverageovertheworldprice-settingmechanismforoilinordertoquadrupleworldoilprices,afterattemptsatnegotiationwiththe"SevenSisters"earlierinthemonthfailed.DuetothedependenceoftheindustrializedworldonOPECoil,thesepriceincreasesweredramaticallyinflationarytotheeconomiesofthetargetedcountries,whileatthesametimesuppressiveofeconomicactivity.Thetargetedcountriesrespondedwithawidevarietyofnew,andmostlypermanent,initiativestocontaintheirfurtherdependency.
Thedevaluationresultedinincreasedworldeconomicandpoliticaluncertainty.Concurrently,intheearly1970s,thefallintheU.S.dollarwentalongwithafallinthepriceofoil(inUSD).ThisimprovedthesituationofU.S.industrialistsinrelationtoEuropeanandJapanesecompetition.Butthede-valorization—andthendevaluation—ofthedollarcrystallizedtheuneaseofrawmaterialsproducersintheThirdWorld;theysawthewealthundertheirlandsbeingreducedandtheirassetsgrowinginacurrencythatwasworthsignificantlylessthanithadbeenrecently.Thissetthestageforthestruggleforcontroloftheworld'snaturalresourcesandforamorefavorablesharingofthevalueoftheseresourcesbetweentherichcountriesandtheoil-exportingnationsofOPEC.
OPECdevisedastrategyofcounter-penetration,wherebyithopedtomakeindustrialeconomiesthatreliedheavilyonoilimportsvulnerabletoThirdWorldpressuresDwindlingforeignaidfromtheU.S.anditsallies,combinedwiththeWest'spro-IsraelistanceintheMiddleEast,angeredtheArabnationsinOPEC.
FoundingofOPEC
OPECconsistedofthirteennations,includingsevenArabcountries,Iran,andalsoothermajorpetroleum-exportingcountriesinthedevelopingworldlikeVenezuela.IthadbeenofficiallyannouncedonSeptember14inCairo,1960toprotestpressurebymajoroilcompanies(mostlyownedbyU.S.,British,andDutchnationals)toreduceoilpricesandpaymentstoproducers.AtfirstithadoperatedasaninformalbargainingunitforthesaleofoilbyThirdWorldnations.ItconfineditsactivitiestogainingalargershareoftherevenuesproducedbyWesternoilcompaniesandgreatercontroloverthelevelsofproduction.However,intheearly1970sitbegantodisplayitsstrength.