论白令海峡的法律地位

{2}Anattemptatpresentinganexhaustivelistwouldbeunnecessarilycumbersome,butforanideaofrecently-publishedacademicpiecesonthesubject,seeAngelleC.Smith,FrozenAssets:OwnershipofArcticMineralRightsMustbeResolvedtoPreventtheReallyColdWar,GeorgeWashingtonInternationalLawReview,Vol.41,2010,p.651;AldoChircop,TheGrowthofInternationalShippingintheArctic:IsaRegulatoryReviewTimely,TheInternationalJournalofMarineandCoastalLaw,Vol.24,No.2,2009,p.355;MichaelByers,WhoOwnstheArcticUnderstandingSovereigntyDisputesintheNorth,Vancouver:Douglas&MclntyrePublishersINC,2009;RogerHoward,TheArcticGoldRush:TheNevuRaceforTomorrovt/sNaturalResources,London:ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2009.

{3}SeeFigure1.SeealsoE.J.Molenaar,ArcticMarineShipping:OverviewoftheInternationalLegalFramework,Gaps,andOptions,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.293(remarkingthat“alltrans-ArcticmarineshippingmustpassthroughtheBeringStrait”).

{5}UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaTreatiesandAgreements:ThirdUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea(doneatMontegoBay),openedforsignatureDecember10,1982,UNDoc.A/Conf.62/122,16Nov1994;reprintedatInternationalLegalMaterials,Vol.21,p.1261andU.N.T.S.,No.1833,p.397[hereinafterUNCLOS].

{8}SeeUNCLOS,Arts.58(1),87(1).

{9}Seemap2andaccompanyingexplanation.

{10}SeeUNCLOS,Art.2.

{11}SeeUNCLOS,Art.17reads:“SubjecttothisConvention,shipsofallStates,whethercoastalorland-locked,enjoytherightofinnocentpassagethroughtheterritorialsea.”

{12}SeeUNCLOS,Art.18.

{13}SeeUNCLOS,Art.19(1).

{14}Interestingly,thisarticledoesnotstatewhetherthelistisexhaustive,leavingthepossibleinterpretationthatotheractsmayalsobeconsidered“prejudicialtothepeace”ofacoastalState.

{17}MattRoston,NoteandComment,TheNorthwestPassage'sEmergenceasanInternationalHighway,SouthwesternJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.15,2009,p.450(assertingthelikelihoodofNorthwestPassagebecomingamajornavigationalroutefollowingtheicemelt);RogerHoward,TheArcticGoldRush:TheNewRaceforTomorrow'sNaturalResources,London:ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2009,pp.109~110(statingthatthedistanceofaTokyo-Londonvoyagecouldbereducedby3,500milesifusingArcticroutesinsteadoftheSuezCanalorasmuchas5,500ifusedinsteadofthePanamaCanal;theauthorfurtherrelatesthataBremen-Shanghaivoyagecouldbereducedby3,200miles;inshort,thedistanceofmanysuchjourneyswouldbecutbyaboutathird).

{18}Somesourcesusethetwoappellations“NorthernSeaRoute”(NSR)and“NortheastPassage”synonymously;moreaccurately,thetwoshouldbeconsideredseparateentities,theNSRconstitutingthecenterportionofthelongerNortheastPassage.SeeLeonidTymchenko,TheNorthernSeaRoute:RussianManagementandJurisdictionoverNavigationinArcticSeas,inAlexG.OudeElferinkandDonaldRothwelled.,TheLawoftheSeaandPolarMaritimeDelimitationandJurisdiction,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001,pp.269~291.ThepresentessayusuallyemploysthetermNSRbecausethediscussionrevolvesaroundRussia'slegalstanceconcerningthisroute,whichitregardsasadomesticone.

{21}ClaesLykkeRagner,Dennorrasjvgen,inTorstenHallbeged.,Barents——ettgrnslandiNorden,Stockholm:ArenaNorden,2008,pp.114~127.

{22}MichaelA.Becker,RussiaandtheArctic:OpportunitiesforEngagementwithintheExistingLegalFrameworkSymposium:RussiaandtheRuleofLaw:NewOpportunitiesinDomesticandInternationalAffairs,AmericanUniversityInternationalLawReview,Vol.25,2010,p.241(statingthatinAugust2009twoGerman-ownedships,theBelugaFraternityandBelugaForesight,”undertookandcompletedthevoyage,withRussianapprovalandwithoutice-breakerassistance”).

{23}LeonidTymchenko,TheNorthernSeaRoute:RussianManagementandJurisdictionoverNavigationinArcticSeas,inAlexG.OudeElferinkandDonaldRothwelled.,TheLawoftheSeaandPolarMaritimeDelimitationandJurisdiction,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001,pp.286~288.OutlinesapossiblesolutiontoproblemsposedbyRussianadministrationofitsNSR,namelyinternationalizationofsaidpassage,perhapsviaaninternationalNSRConvention.

{24}SeegenerallyJohnKennair,Conference:InternationalArcticChangeandtheLawandPoliticsoftheArcticOceanSeabed,AnInconsistentTruth:CanadianForeignPolicyandtheNorthwestPassage,VermontLawReview,Vol.34,2009,p.15;JamesKraska,Symposium:MountingTensionandMeltingIce:ExploringtheLegalandPoliticalFutureoftheArctic,InternationalSecurityandInternationalLawintheNorthwestPassage,VanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw,Vol.42,2009,p.1109;MichaelByersandSuzanneLalonde,Symposium:MountingTensionandMeltingIce:ExploringtheLegalandPoliticalFutureoftheArctic,WhoControlstheNorthwestPassageVanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw,Vol.42,2009,p.1133.

{27}SeeUNCLOS,partII,sec.3,subsec.A.

{28}SeeUNCLOS,partⅢ.

{29}SeeUNCLOS,Art.45andUnitedNationsConventionontheTerritorialSeaandtheContiguousZone,Art.16(4);seealsoAnaG.LopezMartin,InternationalStraits:Concept,ClassificationandRulesofPassage,Madrid:Springer,2010,pp.109~149.

{30}UNCLOS,Art.19(2).

{31}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.105.

{32}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.107(emphasisinoriginal).

{33}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.107.

{35}SeeUNCLOS,partII,sec.3,subsec.A,UNCLOSpartIUandaccompanyingtext.

{36}UNCLOS,Art.45.

{37}InternationalCourtofJusticeReport,1949,p.4.

{38}InternationalCourtofJusticeReport,Rep.4,1949,p.28.

{39}Incontrast,theUnitedNationsConventionontheTerritorialSeaandtheContiguousZone,Art.16(4)provided:“ThereshallbenosuspensionoftheinnocentpassageofforeignshipsthroughstraitswhichareusedforinternationalnavigationbetweenonepartofthehighseasandanotherpartofthehighseasortheterritorialseaofaforeignState.”ThisarrangementwasreachedatthebehestofIsraelanditsallies,inordertoensurefreenavigationtoandfromtheportofEilat.WangZelin,ResearchontheLegalStatusofArcticPassage,DoctoralThesis,XiamenUniversity,2011(Ch.),p.l3.UNCLOS,Art.45upholdstheprinciplethatinnocentpassagemaynotbesuspendedinSUFINswhichconnect“apartofthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomiczoneandtheterritorialseaofaforeignState”.

{40}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.105.

{41}Forexample,in1971IndonesiaandMalaysiajointlydeclaredthattheStraitsofMalaccawerenot“aninternationalwaterway”.NadaisanLogaraj,NavigationalSafety,OilPollutionandPassageintheStraitsofMalacca,MalayaLawReview,Vol.20,1978,p.288.

{42}AsofAugust2012.

{43}SeePresidentRonaldReagan'sStatementonUnitedStatesOceanPolicy,10March1983,InternationalLegalMaterials,Vol.22,1983,p.464AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.77,1983,p.619.

{46}UNCLOS,Art.37statesthattheSUFINstatusandaccompanyingrightoftransitpassage“appliestostraitswhichareusedforinternationalnavigationbetweenonepartofthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomiczoneandanotherpartofthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomiczone.”ThereisnochronologicalpreconditionmentionedheredefiningwheninternationaltrafficmustbegininastraitforittobeconsideredaSUFIN.

{48}ErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.330(statingthat“thecurrentlegalregimeofArcticmarineshippingintheNorthernSeaRoute”isbasedonregulationsdatingbackto1990,ayearbeforetheUSSR'scollapse).

{49}UNCLOS,Art.234reads:CoastalStateshavetherighttoadoptandenforcenon-discriminatorylawsandregulationsfortheprevention,reductionandcontrolofmarinepollutionfromvesselsinice-coveredareaswithinthelimitsoftheexclusiveeconomiczone,whereparticularlysevereclimaticconditionsandthepresenceoficecoveringsuchareasformostoftheyearcreateobstructionsorexceptionalhazardstonavigation,andpollutionofthemarineenvironmentcouldcausemajorharmtoorirreversibledisturbanceoftheecologicalbalance.Suchlawsandregulationsshallhavedueregardtonavigationandtheprotectionandpreservationofthemarineenvironmentbasedonthebestavailablescientificevidence.

{50}JoshuaOwens,EnclosedandSemi-EnclosedSeas:AGlimpseatStatePracticewithSpecialRegardtotheArctic,ChinaOceansLawReview[tobepublished](assertingthatasimilarregimebasedontheenclosedandsemi-enclosedseas,regimemaybeestablishedintheArcticocean).

{51}Thereare,ofcourse,otherinternationaltreatiesthatinfluenceRussia'sgovernanceofitsArcticwaters,butnonesogermanetotheissuesathandastheonesdiscussedabove.AlistofotherrelevantsourcesofinternationallawwithimplicationsforArcticgovernancemaybefoundinMichaelA.Becker,RussiaandtheArctic:OpportunitiesforEngagementwithintheExistingLegalFrameworkSymposium:RussiaandtheRuleofLaw:NewOpportunitiesinDomesticandInternationalAffairs,AmericanUniversityInternationalLawReview,Vol.25,2010,pp.233~234.

{53}UNCLOS,Art.234.

{54}Thecollectionoffeesbyariparianstatefromvesselsmerelytransitingthroughitsterritorialseaisnotallowed,whilechargingforspecialservicesis.SeeUNCLOS,Art.26.

{62}SeeErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.327;LeonidTymchenko,TheNorthernSeaRoute:RussianManagementandJurisdictionoverNavigationinArcticSeas,inAlexG.OudeElferinkandDonaldRothwelled.,TheLawoftheSeaandPolarMaritimeDelimitationandJurisdiction,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001;R.DouglasBrubaker,TheRussianArcticStraits,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2005.

{63}ErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.342(notingthat“substantialchangesaretobeexpectedconcerningthelegalregimeapplicabletoforeignshippingintheRussianArcticinanottoodistantfuture”).

{64}MichaelA.Becker,RussiaandtheArctic:OpportunitiesforEngagementwithintheExistingLegalFrameworkSymposium:RussiaandtheRuleofLaw:NewOpportunitiesinDomesticandInternationalAffairs,AmericanUniversityInternationalLawReview,Vol.25,2010,p.241.

{65}TherelevantlegislationprovidesthattheNSRends“intheeast(intheBeringStrait)bytheparallel66Nandthemeridian16858'37"W.”1990RegulationsforNavigationontheSeawaysoftheNorthernSeaRoute,approved14Sept.,1990,29IzveshcheniiaMoreplavateliam[NoticestoMariners](18June,1991)(Rus.),quotedinErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.331.Thispointliessometenminutes'latitudenorthoftheDiomedeIslands,adistanceofabout18km(10nm).Seemap2.

{66}Seesec.IVofthepresenttextandUNCLOS,Art.234.

{67}SeeReagan'sStatementonU.S.OceansPolicy,10March,1983,InternationalLegalMaterials,Vol.22,1983,p.464;AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.77,1983,p.619.ForadetailedaccountofUSprotestsagainst“excessivemaritimeclaims”,includingrestrictionsonnavigation,seeRobertSmith,NavigationIssuesintheLawoftheSea,inKim,Park,Lee&Paiked.,MaritimeIssuesinthe1990s:Antarctica,LawoftheSeaandMarineEnvironment,SeoulPress,1991,pp.87~125;SeealsoJ.AshleyRoachRobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996.

{68}J.AshleyRoach&RobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996.p.284.

{69}J.AshleyRoachRobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,pp.284~287.

{70}PresidentialProclamation5928,27December1988.CitedinJ.AshleyRoachRobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,p.285.

{71}Aide-memoiredelivered4December1984fromAmericanEmbassyStockholm,StateDepartmenttelegram355149,1December1984;AmericanEmbassyStockholmtelegram08539,10December1984.CitedinJ.AshleyRoach&RobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,p.286.

{72}J.AshleyRoach&RobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,pp.286~287.

{77}ThiswouldbefullyinaccordancewithUNCLOS,Art.26,whichstipulates:(1)Nochargemaybelevieduponforeignshipsbyreasononlyoftheirpassagethroughtheterritorialsea;and(2)Chargesmaybelevieduponaforeignshippassingthroughtheterritorialseaaspaymentonlyforspecificservicesrenderedtotheship.Thesechargesshallbeleviedwithoutdiscrimination.

{78}SeeUNCLOS,Art.42(4).

{82}UNCLOS,Art.41.

{83}UNCLOS,Art.43.

{84}Seesec.IE(A)ofthepresenttext.

{85}TheAgreementbetweentheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheGovernmentoftheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublicsconcerningCooperationinCombatingPollutionintheBeringandChukchiSeasinEmergencySituations(signed11May1989,enteredintoforce17August1989),U.N.T.S.,No.2190,p.180.

{87}Forpre-UNCLOScommentariesonMalaccaStraitsadministration,seeMichaelLeifer,Malacca,SingaporeandIndonesia,SijthoffandNoordhoff,1978;SeealsoNadaisanLoga—raj,NavigationalSafety,OilPollutionandPassageintheStraitsofMalacca,MalayaLawReview,Vol.20,1978,p.287.Formorecurrenttreatments,seeLimLeiTheng,SafetyofNavigationintheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:ModalitiesofCooperation,Rapporteur'sReport,SingaporeJournalofInternational&ComparativeLaw,Vol.2,1998,p.254;NihanUnlli,StraitsofMalacca,InternationalJournalofMarineandCoastalLaw,Vol.21,No.4,2006,p.539.

{88}GurpreetS.Singhota,TheIMO'sRoleinPromotingSafetyofNavigationandControlofMarinePollutionintheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore,SingaporeJournalofInternational&ComparativeLaw,Vol.2,1998,p.291.

{89}SeeJoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.233.

{90}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.236.

{91}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.236.

{92}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.237.

{93}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.238.

{94}Ho-SamBang,IsPort—StateControlanEffectiveMeanstoCombatVessel-SourcePollutionAnEmpiricalSurveyofthePracticalExercisebyPortStatesofTheirPowersofControl,InternationalJournalofMarineandCoastalLaw,Vol.23,2008,p.744.

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