Youshouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions1-13,whicharebasedonReadingPassage1below.
AChronicleofTimekeeping
Ourconceptionoftimedependsonthewaywemeasureit
AAccordingtoarchaeologicalevidence,atleast5,000yearsago,andlongbeforetheadventoftheRomanEmpire,theBabyloniansbegantomeasuretime,introducingcalendarstoco-ordinatecommunalactivities,toplantheshipmentofgoodsand,inparticular,toregulateplantingandharvesting.Theybasedtheircalendarsonthreenaturalcycles:thesolarday,markedbythesuccessiveperiodsoflightanddarknessastheearthrotatesonitsaxis;thelunarmonth,followingthephasesofthemoonasitorbitstheearth;andthesolaryear,definedbythechangingseasonsthataccompanyourplanet"srevolutionaroundthesun.
BBeforetheinventionofartificiallight,themoonhadgreatersocialimpact.And,forthoselivingneartheequatorinparticular,itswaxingandwaningwasmoreconspicuousthanthepassingoftheseasons.Hence,thecalendarsthatweredevelopedatthelowerlatitudeswereinfluencedmorebythelunarcyclethanbythesolaryear.Inmorenorthernclimes,however,whereseasonalagriculturewaspractised,thesolaryearbecamemorecrucial.AstheRomanEmpireexpandednorthward,itorganiseditsactivitychartforthemostpartaroundthesolaryear.
CCenturiesbeforetheRomanEmpire,theEgyptianshadformulatedamunicipalcalendarhaving12monthsof30days,withfivedaysaddedtoapproximatethesolaryear.Eachperiodoftendayswasmarkedbytheappearanceofspecialgroupsofstarscalleddecans.AttheriseofthestarSiriusjustbeforesunrise,whichoccurredaroundtheall-importantannualfloodingoftheNile,12decanscouldbeseenspanningtheheavens.ThecosmicsignificancetheEgyptiansplacedinthe12decansledthemtodevelopasysteminwhicheachintervalofdarkness(andlater,eachintervalofdaylight)wasdividedintoadozenequalparts.Theseperiodsbecameknownastemporalhoursbecausetheirdurationvariedaccordingtothechanginglengthofdaysandnightswiththepassingoftheseasons.Summerhourswerelong,winteronesshort;onlyatthespringandautumnequinoxeswerethehoursofdaylightanddarknessequal.Temporalhours,whichwerefirstadoptedbytheGreeksandthentheRomans,whodisseminatedthemthroughEurope,remainedinuseformorethan2,500years.
DInordertotracktemporalhoursduringtheday,inventorscreatedsundials,whichindicatetimebythelengthordirectionofthesun"sshadow.Thesundial"scounterpart,thewaterclock,wasdesignedtomeasuretemporalhoursatnight.Oneofthefirstwaterclockswasabasinwithasmallholenearthebottomthroughwhichthewaterdrippedout.Thefallingwaterleveldenotedthepassinghourasitdippedbelowhourlinesinscribedontheinnersurface.AlthoughthesedevicesperformedsatisfactorilyaroundtheMediterranean,theycouldnotalwaysbedependedoninthecloudyandoftenfreezingweatherofnorthernEurope.
ETheadventofthemechanicalclockmeantthatalthoughitcouldbeadjustedtomaintaintemporalhours,itwasnaturallysuitedtokeepingequalones.Withthese,however,arosethequestionofwhentobegincounting,andso,intheearly14thcentury,anumberofsystemsevolved.Theschemesthatdividedthedayinto24equalpartsvariedaccordingtothestartofthecount:Italianhoursbeganatsunset,Babylonianhoursatsunrise,astronomicalhoursatmiddayand"greatclock"hours,usedforsomelargepublicclocksinGermany,atmidnight.Eventuallytheseweresupersededby"smallclock",orFrench,hours,whichsplitthedayintotwo12-hourperiodscommencingatmidnight.
FTheearliestrecordedweight-drivenmechanicalclockwasbuiltin1283inBedfordshireinEngland.Therevolutionaryaspectofthisnewtimekeeperwasneitherthedescendingweightthatprovideditsmotiveforcenorthegearwheels(whichhadbeenaroundforatleast1,300years)thattransferredthepower;itwasthepartcalledtheescapement.Intheearly1400scametheinventionofthecoiledspringorfuseewhichmaintainedconstantforcetothegearwheelsofthetimekeeperdespitethechangingtensionofitsmainspring.Bythe16thcentury,apendulumclockhadbeendevised,butthependulumswunginalargearcandthuswasnotveryefficient.
GToaddressthis,avariationontheoriginalescapementwasinventedin1670,inEngland.Itwascalledtheanchorescapement,whichwasalever-baseddeviceshapedlikeaship"sanchor.Themotionofapendulumrocksthisdevicesothatitcatchesandthenreleaseseachtoothoftheescapewheel,inturnallowingittoturnapreciseamount.Unliketheoriginalformusedinearlypendulumclocks,theanchorescapementpermittedthependulumtotravelinaverysmallarc.Moreover,thisinventionallowedtheuseofalongpendulumwhichcouldbeatonceasecondandthusledtothedevelopmentofanewfloor-standingcasedesign,whichbecameknownasthegrandfatherclock.
HToday,highlyaccuratetimekeepinginstrumentssetthebeatformostelectronicdevices.Nearlyallcomputerscontainaquartz-crystalclocktoregulatetheiroperation.Moreover,notonlydotimesignalsbeameddownfromGlobalPositioningSystemsatellitescalibratethefunctionsofprecisionnavigationequipment,theydosoaswellformobilephones,instantstock-tradingsystemsandnationwidepower-distributiongrids.Sointegralhavethesetime-basedtechnologiesbecometoday-to-dayexistencethatourdependencyonthemisrecognisedonlywhentheyfailtowork.
Questions1-4
ReadingPassage1haseightparagraphs,A-H.
Whichparagraphcontainsthefollowinginformation
Writethecorrectletter,A-H,inboxes1-4onyouranswersheet.
1adescriptionofanearlytimekeepinginventionaffectedbycoldtemperatures
2anexplanationoftheimportanceofgeographyinthedevelopmentofthecalendar
infarmingcommunities
3adescriptionoftheoriginsofthependulumclock
4detailsofthesimultaneouseffortsofdifferentsocietiestocalculatetimeusing
uniformhours
Questions5-8
Lookatthefollowingevents(Questions5-8)andthelistofnationalitiesbelow.
Matcheacheventwiththecorrectnationality,A-F.
Writethecorrectletter,A-F,inboxes5-8onyouranswersheet.
5Theydevisedacivilcalendarinwhichthemonthswereequalinlength.
6Theydividedthedayintotwoequalhalves.
7Theydevelopedanewcabinetshapeforatypeoftimekeeper.
8Theycreatedacalendartoorganisepubliceventsandworkschedules.
ListofNationalities
ABabylonians
BEgyptians
CGreeks
DEnglish
EGermans
FFrench
Questions9-13
Labelthediagrambelow.
ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.
Writeyouranswersinboxes9-13onyouranswersheet.
图片10
READINGPASSAGE2
Youshouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions14-26,whicharebasedonReading
Passage2onthefollowingpages.
Questions14-19
ReadingPassage2hassevenparagraphs,A-G.
ChoosethecorrectheadingforparagraphsAandC-Gfromthelistbelow.
Writethecorrectnumber,i-x,inboxes14-19onyouranswersheet.
ListofHeadings
iDisobeyingFAAregulations
iiAviationdisasterpromptsaction
iiiTwocoincidentaldevelopments
ivSettingaltitudezones
vAnoversimplifiedview
viControllingpilots’licences
viiDefiningairspacecategories
viiiSettingrulestoweatherconditions
ixTakingoffsafely
xFirststepstowardsATC
14ParagraphA
ExampleAnswer
ParagraphBx
15ParagraphC
16ParagraphD
17ParagraphE
18ParagraphF
19ParagraphG
AIRTRAFFICCONTROL
INTHEUSA
AAnaccidentthatoccurredintheskiesovertheGrandCanyonin1956resultedintheestablishmentoftheFederalAviationAdministration(FAA)toregulateandoverseetheoperationofaircraftintheskiesovertheUnitedStates,whichwerebecomingquitecongested.TheresultingstructureofairtrafficcontrolhasgreatlyincreasedthesafetyofflightintheUnitedStates,andsimilarairtrafficcontrolproceduresarealsoinplaceovermuchoftherestoftheworld.
BRudimentaryairtrafficcontrol(ATC)existedwellbeforetheGrandCanyondisaster.Asearlyasthe1920s,theearliestairtrafficcontrollersmanuallyguidedaircraftinthevicinityoftheairports,usinglightsandflags,whilebeaconsandflashinglightswereplacedalongcross-countryroutestoestablishtheearliestairways.However,thispurelyvisualsystemwasuselessinbadweather,and,bythe1930s,radiocommunicationwascomingintouseforATC.Thefirstregiontohavesomethingapproximatingtoday"sATCwasNewYorkCity,withothermajormetropolitanareasfollowingsoonafter.
CInthe1940s,ATCcentrescouldanddidtakeadvantageofthenewlydevelopedradarandimprovedradiocommunicationbroughtaboutbytheSecondWorldWar,butthesystemremainedrudimentary.ItwasonlyafterthecreationoftheFAAthatfull-scaleregulationofAmerica"sairspacetookplace,andthiswasfortuitous,fortheadventofthejetenginesuddenlyresultedinalargenumberofveryfastplanes,reducingpilots"marginoferrorandpracticallydemandingsomesetofrulestokeepeveryonewellseparatedandoperatingsafelyintheair.
DManypeoplethinkthatATCconsistsofarowofcontrollerssittinginfrontoftheirradarscreensatthenation"sairports,tellingarrivinganddepartingtrafficwhattodo.Thisisaveryincompletepartofthepicture.TheFAArealisedthattheairspaceovertheUnitedStateswouldatanytimehavemanydifferentkindsofplanes,flyingformanydifferentpurposes,inavarietyofweatherconditions,andthesamekindofstructurewasneededtoaccommodateallofthem.
ETomeetthischallenge,thefollowingelementswereputintoeffect.First,ATCextendsovervirtuallytheentireUnitedStates.Ingeneral,from365mabovethegroundandhigher,theentirecountryisblanketedbycontrolledairspace.Incertainareas,mainlynearairports,controlledairspaceextendsdownto215mabovetheground,and,intheimmediatevicinityofanairport,allthewaydowntothesurface.ControlledairspaceisthatairspaceinwhichFAAregulationsapply.Elsewhere,inuncontrolledairspace,pilotsareboundbyfewerregulations.Inthisway,therecreationalpilotwhosimplywishestogoflyingforawhilewithoutalltherestrictionsimposedbytheFAAhasonlytostayinuncontrolledairspace,below365m,whilethepilotwhodoeswanttheprotectionaffordedbyATCcaneasilyenterthecontrolledairspace.
FTheFAAthenrecognisedtwotypesofoperatingenvironments.Ingoodmeteorologicalconditions,flyingwouldbepermittedunderVisualFlightRules(VFR),whichsuggestsastrongrelianceonvisualcuestomaintainanacceptablelevelofsafety.PoorvisibilitynecessitatedasetofInstrumentalFlightRules(IFR),underwhichthepilotreliedonaltitudeandnavigationalinformationprovidedbytheplane"sinstrumentpaneltoflysafely.Onaclearday,apilotincontrolledairspacecanchooseaVFRorIFRflightplan,andtheFAAregulationsweredevisedinawaywhichaccommodatesbothVFRandIFRoperationsinthesameairspace.However,apilotcanonlychoosetoflyIFRiftheypossessaninstrumentratingwhichisaboveandbeyondthebasicpilot"slicensethatmustalsobeheld.
Questions20-26
DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassage2
Inboxes20-26onyouranswersheet,write
TRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformation
FALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformation
NOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationonthis
20TheFAAwascreatedasaresultoftheintroductionofthejetengine.
21AirTrafficControlstartedaftertheGrandCanyoncrashin1956.
22BeaconsandflashinglightsarestillusedbyATCtoday.
23SomeimprovementsweremadeinradiocommunicationduringWorldWarII.
24ClassFairspaceisairspacewhichisbelow365mandnotnearairports.
25AllaircraftinClassEairspacemustuseIFR.
26ApilotenteringClassCairspaceisflyingoveranaverage-sizedcity.
READINGPASSAGE3
Youshouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions27-40,whicharebasedonReadingPassage3below.
TELEPATHY
CanhumanbeingscommunicatebythoughtaloneFormorethanacenturytheissueoftelepathyhasdividedthescientificcommunity,andeventodayitstillsparksbittercontroversyamongtopacademics
Sincethe1970s,parapsychologistsatleadinguniversitiesandresearchinstitutesaroundtheworldhaveriskedthederisionofscepticalcolleaguesbyputtingthevariousclaimsfortelepathytothetestindozensofrigorousscientificstudies.Theresultsandtheirimplicationsaredividingeventheresearcherswhouncoveredthem.
Someresearcherssaytheresultsconstitutecompellingevidencethattelepathyisgenuine.Otherparapsychologistsbelievethefieldisonthebrinkofcollapse,havingtriedtoproducedefinitivescientificproofandfailed.Scepticsandadvocatesalikedoconcurononeissue,however:thatthemostimpressiveevidencesofarhascomefromtheso-called"ganzfeld"experiments,aGermantermthatmeans"wholefield".Reportsoftelepathicexperienceshadbypeopleduringmeditationledparapsychologiststosuspectthattelepathymightinvolve"signals"passingbetweenpeoplethatweresofaintthattheywereusuallyswampedbynormalbrainactivity.Inthiscase,suchsignalsmightbemoreeasilydetectedbythoseexperiencingmeditation—liketranquillityinarelaxing"wholefield"oflight,soundandwarmth.
Theganzfeldexperimenttriestorecreatetheseconditionswithparticipantssittinginsoftrecliningchairsinasealedroom,listeningtorelaxingsoundswhiletheireyesarecoveredwithspecialfilterslettinginonlysoftpinklight.Inearlyganzfeldexperiments,thetelepathytestinvolvedidentificationofapicturechosenfromarandomselectionoffourtakenfromalargeimagebank.Theideawasthatapersonactingasa"sender"wouldattempttobeamtheimageovertothe"receiver"relaxinginthesealedroom.Oncethesessionwasover,thispersonwasaskedtoidentifywhichofthefourimageshadbeenused.Randomguessingwouldgiveahit-rateof25percent;iftelepathyisreal,however,thehit-ratewouldbehigher.In1982,theresultsfromthefirstganzfeldstudieswereanalysedbyoneofitspioneers,theAmericanparapsychologistCharlesHonorton.Theypointedtotypicalhit-ratesofbetterthan30percent—asmalleffect,butonewhichstatisticaltestssuggestedcouldnotbeputdowntochance.
Theimplicationwasthattheganzfeldmethodhadrevealedrealevidencefortelepathy.Buttherewasacrucialflawinthisargument—oneroutinelyoverlookedinmoreconventionalareasofscience.Justbecausechancehadbeenruledoutasanexplanationdidnotprovetelepathymustexist;thereweremanyotherwaysofgettingpositiveresults.Theserangedfrom"sensoryleakage"—wherecluesaboutthepicturesaccidentallyreachthereceiver—tooutrightfraud.Inresponse,theresearchersissuedareviewofalltheganzfeldstudiesdoneupto1985toshowthat80percenthadfoundstatisticallysignificantevidence.However,theyalsoagreedthattherewerestilltoomanyproblemsintheexperimentswhichcouldleadtopositiveresults,andtheydrewupalistdemandingnewstandardsforfutureresearch.
Afterthis,manyresearchersswitchedtoautoganzfeldtests—anautomatedvariantofthetechniquewhichusedcomputerstoperformmanyofthekeytaskssuchastherandomselectionofimages.Byminimisinghumaninvolvement,theideawastominimisetheriskofflawedresults.In1987,resultsfromhundredsofautoganzfeldtestswerestudiedbyHonortonina"meta-analysis",astatisticaltechniqueforfindingtheoverallresultsfromasetofstudies.Thoughlesscompellingthanbefore,theoutcomewasstillimpressive.
Yetsomeparapsychologistsremaindisturbedbythelackofconsistencybetweenindividualganzfeldstudies.Defendersoftelepathypointoutthatdemandingimpressiveevidencefromeverystudyignoresonebasicstatisticalfact:ittakeslargesamplestodetectsmalleffects.If,ascurrentresultssuggest,telepathyproduceshit-ratesonlymarginallyabovethe25percentexpectedbychance,it"sunlikelytobedetectedbyatypicalganzfeldstudyinvolvingaround40people:thegroupisjustnotbigenough.Onlywhenmanystudiesarecombinedinameta-analysiswillthefaintsignaloftelepathyreallybecomeapparent.Andthatiswhatresearchersdoseemtobefinding.
Whattheyarecertainlynotfinding,however,isanychangeinattitudeofmainstreamscientists:moststilltotallyrejecttheveryideaoftelepathy.Theproblemstemsatleastinpartfromthelackofanyplausiblemechanismfortelepathy.
Varioustheorieshavebeenputforward,manyfocusingonesotericideasfromtheoreticalphysics.Theyinclude"quantumentanglement",inwhicheventsaffectingonegroupofatomsinstantlyaffectanothergroup,nomatterhowfaraparttheymaybe.Whilephysicistshavedemonstratedentanglementwithspeciallypreparedatoms,no-oneknowsifitalsoexistsbetweenatomsmakinguphumanminds.Answeringsuchquestionswouldtransformparapsychology.Thishaspromptedsomeresearcherstoarguethatthefutureliesnotincollectingmoreevidencefortelepathy,butinprobingpossiblemechanisms.Someworkhasbegunalready,withresearcherstryingtoidentifypeoplewhoareparticularlysuccessfulinautoganzfeldtrials.Earlyresultsshowthatcreativeandartisticpeopledomuchbetterthanaverage:inonestudyattheUniversityofEdinburgh,musiciansachievedahit-rateof56percent.Perhapsmoretestslikethesewilleventuallygivetheresearcherstheevidencetheyareseekingandstrengthenthecasefortheexistenceoftelepathy.
Questions27-30
Completeeachsentencewiththecorrectending,A-G,below.
Writethecorrectletter,A-G,inboxes27-30onyouranswersheet.
27Researcherswithdifferingattitudestowardstelepathyagreeon
28Reportsofexperiencesduringmeditationindicated
29Attitudestoparapsychologywouldalterdrasticallywith
30Recentautoganzfeldtrialssuggestthatsuccessrateswillimprovewith
Athediscoveryofamechanismfortelepathy
Btheneedtocreateasuitableenvironmentfortelepathy.
Ctheirclaimsofahighsuccessrate.
Dasolutiontotheproblemposedbyrandomguessing.
Ethesignificanceoftheganzfeldexperiments.
Famorecarefulselectionofsubjects.
Ganeedtokeepalteringconditions.
Questions31-40
Completethetablebelow.
ChooseNOMORETHANTHREEWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.
Writeyouranswersinboxes31-40onyouranswersheet.
TelepathyExperiments
Name/Date
DescriptionResultFlaw
Ganzfeld
Studies
1982Involvedaperson
actingasa
31..............
whopickedoutone
32............from
arandomselection
offour,anda
33..............,
whothentriedto
identifyit.Hit-rateswere
higherthanwith
randomguessing.Positiveresults
couldbeproduced
byfactorssuchas
34..............or
35...............
Autoganzfeld
studies
198736.............
wereusedforkey
taskstolimitthe
amountof
37..............
incarryingoutthe
test.Theresultswere
thensubjectedto
a38.............The39..........
betweendifferent
testresultswas
putdowntothe
factthatsample
groupswerenot
40...................(as
withmostganzfeld
Studies).
剑桥雅思阅读8原文参考译文test1
PASSAGE1参考译文:
在人造光发明以前,月亮对社会产生的影响尤为显著。尤其对于赤道附近的居民而言,月圆月缺比季节更替更加明显。因此,低纬度地区日历的形成更多受到月运周期的影响,而不是回归年。然而,在践行季节性农业的更偏北的气候带,回归年则更为重要。随着罗马帝国向北扩张,它的活动图表通常都是根据回归年而编排的。
最早有记载的以重量驱动的机械钟1283年建于英国贝德福德郡。这种新型计时器所具有的革命意义既不在于依靠向下的重力提供起动力,也不在于依靠齿轮(至少有1300年的使用历史)传递动力,而在于它使用了一个叫做擒纵机构棘轮装置的部件。15世纪初人们又创造出了螺旋弹簧,也被称为均力圆锥轮。尽管主发条承受着不断变化的张力,但该装置仍能为钟表齿轮提供恒力。到了16世纪,人们发明了摆钟。但由于钟摆摆动弧度很大,因此并不十分有效。
为了解决这个问题,原有擒纵机构棘轮装置的改进装置1670年在英格兰发明出来。该装置被称为锚型擒纵机构,以杠杆为基础,形状像一艘船的锚。钟摆的动作对该设备产生振动,以使它抓紧而后释放擒纵机构棘轮装置的每一个齿,从而使得齿轮精确地旋转。与早期摆钟中所使用的原始装置不同,锚型擒纵机构使钟摆的摆动弧度变得很小。此外,这一发明使得摆钟可以使用长摆,一秒钟摆动一下,从而引发了新型落地柜式造型的开发,也就是落地摆钟。
TEST1PASSAGE2参考译文:
美国航空交通管制
A.1956年美国大峡谷上空发生的一起事故促成了联邦航空局(FAA)的成立。该局负责管理和监督美国越来越拥挤的天空。由此形成的空中交通管制结构大大增加了飞机在美国的飞行安全,世界其他很多地方也采取了类似的空中交通管制程序。
B.早在大峡谷灾难发生之前就存在雏形的航空交通管制(ATC)。早在20世纪20年代初,最早的空中交通管制员在机场附近用灯和标志旗手动引导飞机。当时,灯标和闪光灯沿着越野路线放置以建立最早的航线。然而,这种纯粹的视觉系统在恶劣天气情况下是无用的。到20世纪30年代,航空交通管制开始使用无线电通讯。首个采用类似于今天的航空交通管制的地方是纽约市,其他主要的大都市紧随其后。
C.20世纪40年代,航空交通管制中心利用了第二次世界大战催生出的新研制的雷达和改进后的无线电通讯技术,但管制系统仍然很不成熟。直到联邦航空局分创建以后,美国才开始进行全面的领空管制。而这一事件却是偶然的,因为喷气式发动机的产生突然导致大批快速飞机的出现。这些飞机减少了飞行员的误差幅度,并且需要实际的整套规则以使飞机之间保持良好的分离状态,在空中安全行驶。
D.很多人认为,航空交通管制就是一排管理人员坐在国家机场的雷达屏幕前指挥着抵港及离港的交通。这只是整个场景中的一部分。美国联邦航空局认识到每时每刻都会有许多不同种类的飞机,为了这样那样的目的,在各种各样的天气情况下飞行在美国的空中。因此,急需一个能够容纳所有情况的同一体系。
F.然后,美国联邦航空局确认了两种类型的飞行环境。在气象条件良好的情况下,飞行员可按照目视飞行规则(VPR)飞行。该规则主要依靠视觉线索来维持可接受的安全水平。低能见度使建立一套仪表飞行规则(IFR)成为必需。根据该规则,飞行员依靠飞机仪表盘提供的飞行高度和导航信息确保飞行安全。天气晴朗时,管制空域内的飞行员可以选择在目视飞行规则或仪表飞行规则下飞行,而美国联邦航空局的规定在同一空域同时适用于两套规则的实施。但如果飞行员的仪表等级超出或低于了其必须持有的基本飞行员执照规定的等级,飞行员只能选择遵循仪表飞行规则。
G.管制空域分为几个不同的类型,以英文字母命名。非受控空域被定为F级,而海拔5490米以下非紧邻机场的受控空域被定为E级。5490米以上的所有空域被定为A级。E级和A级是根据其间飞行的不同飞机类型而划分的。一般来说,通用航空飞机(这类飞机的飞行高度大多不超过5490米)和商业涡轮螺旋桨飞机在E级空域飞行。5490米以上是大型喷气机的领空,因为喷气式发动机的效率随着高度的增加而增高。E级和A级之间的区别在于A级空域中所有的操作都遵循仪表飞行规则,飞行员必须具有仪表级别,换言之,必须熟练掌握飞机仪表的使用并获得许可。因为航空交通管制对整个空域的控制是至关重要的。其他三个等级:D级、C级和B级用于管理机场附近的区域。这三个级别大致分别适用于小型城市、中等城市和大型城市的机场,包含了一套越来越严格的规章制度。例如,目视飞行规则飞行员如要进入C级空域,必须与航空交通管制建立双向无线电联系。航空交通管制无需提供明确的进人许可,但飞行员必须始终遵守在目视飞行规则下飞行的所有规定。如要进人B级空域,比如飞临主要城市机场,则必须有明确的航空交通管制许可。未经许可进入领空的私人飞行员可能会被吊销飞行执照。
TEST1PASSAGE3参考译文:
心灵感应
人类可以仅凭思想沟通吗一个多世纪以来,心灵感应问题一直使科学界意见不一,直至今天依然在学界精英中引发着激烈的争论。
上世纪70年代以来,世界各地顶尖高校和科研院所的超心理学家冒着遭受那些持怀疑态度的同事们嘲笑的危险,将关于心灵感应的各种断言假说放人几十个严谨的科学研究中进行试验。试验的结果及其启示甚至将发现该结果的研究者们也分成了几派。
一些研究者认为试验结果构成令人信服的证据,表明心灵感应是真实存在的。其他超心理学家则认为该学科曾试图提出明确的科学论证,但却失败了,因此正处于瓦解的边缘。不过,怀疑者和倡导者却在一个问题上达成共识:即迄今为止令人印象最为深刻的证据出自所谓的“ganzfeld”(超感官知觉全域测试)实验中,这一德文术语的意思是“整个领域”。人类在冥想状态下的心灵感应体验报告使超心理学家怀疑心灵感应可能包含人与人之间传递的“信号”。这种信号十分微弱,以至于往往被正常的大脑活动所淹没。如此说来,这种信号可能更容易被那些沉浸于冥想般宁静中的人检测到。他们所处的“整个领域”有着令人放松的灯光,怡人的声音和温暖的环境。
超感官知觉全域测试试图重新营造这些条件,让参与者坐在一个封闭房间里的柔软躺椅上,听着令人放松的声音,用特殊滤光器将参与者的眼睛蒙住,使他们只能看见柔和的粉红色光线。在早期的超感官知觉全域测试实验中,心灵感应测试包括识别从大型图片库中随机选择的四张图片中的其中一张。试验的想法是有一个人作为“发送者”,尝试把图像发送给在封闭房间中休息的“接收者”。传递过程结束时,接收者需要回答四张图片中的哪一张是刚刚使用过的。随机猜测的命中率是25%,但如果心灵感应是真实存在的,命中率应该更高。1982年,此项研究的先驱者之一,美国超心理学家CharlesHonorton对第一批超感官知觉全域测试研究结果进行了分析。研究结果显示了高于30%的典型命中率。虽然效果不甚明显,但统计测试显示不能将它归因于偶然。
其言下之意是超感官知觉全域测试方法揭示了心灵感应的真实证据。但这种说法有一个关键的漏洞——一个在较传统的科学领域经常被忽视的问题。仅仅由于这种解释排除了偶然因素并不能证明心灵感应一定存在;通过很多其他的方法也能获得积极结果。这些可能性既包括“感官泄漏”,即与图片有关的线索意外地传给了接收者,也包括彻底的欺诈。作为回应,研究者们发表了一份综述,总结了1985年以前进行的所有超感官知觉全域测试研究,以表明80%的研究都发现了有统计意义的证据。但他们也同意目前实验中尚有太多的问题可能导致积极的结果,他们还草拟了一份清单,要求为今后的研究设立新的标准。
此后,许多研究人员转向了自动超感官知觉全域测试,这是一种技术的自动化变体,也就是使用电脑完成许多关键任务,如随机选择图像。通过最大限度地减少人为参与,这一想法是要将有缺陷的结果最小化。1987年,Honorton使用“荟萃分析”,即从一系列研究中寻找整体结果的统计技术,对上百次的自动超感官知觉全域测试结果进行了研究。结果虽然没有以往引人注目,却仍然令人印象深刻。
然而,一些超心理学家仍然为单个超感官知觉全域测试研究之间缺乏一致性感到烦恼。心灵感应捍卫者指出,要求每一项研究都提供令人印象深刻的证据忽略了一个基本的统计事实:检测这些微小影响需要大量的样本支持。如果像目前研究结果表明的那样,心灵感应的命中率仅仅略高于概率预测的25%,涉及40人左右的典型超感官知觉全域测试也不太可能检测得到:试验群体根本不够大。只有当大量研究结合在一个荟萃分析之中,心灵感应的微弱信号才会真正明显起来。而这似乎正是研究者们所发现的。
然而,他们肯定当然不会发现主流科学家们的态度有任何变化:大部分人仍然完全排斥心灵感应的观点。至少一部分问题在于心灵感应缺乏合理的机制。
各种理论都被提了出来,很多以理论物理学的深奥思想为重点。其中包括“量子纠缠”:无论两组原子间距离多么遥远,影响一组原子的事件都会立即影响另一组原子。虽然物理学家们用专门准备的原子演示了“纠缠”,但这一现象是否同样存在于构成人类头脑的原子中却无人知晓。对于这些问题的回答将改变超心理学。这使得一些研究人员认为该学科的未来不在于收集更多心灵感应的证据,而在与探索其可能的机制。一些工作已经开始进行,研究人员试图识别在自动超感官知觉全域测试中特别成功的被试者。早期的结果表明有创造力和艺术性的人们的表现要远远高于平均水平:在爱丁堡大学的一次研究中,音乐家的测试命中率高达56%。或许更多诸如此类的测试最终将为研究人员提供他们正在寻求的证据,巩固加强心灵感应存在的依据。
剑桥雅思阅读8原文解析(test1)
Passage1
Question1
答案:D
关键词:earlytimekeepinginvention,coldtemperatures
定位原文:D段最后1句“Althoughthesedevicesperformed…”
解题思路:全文只有该句中提及寒冷气温。该句含义为“尽管这些装置在地中海地区十分好用,但在多云并常有严寒天气的欧洲北部却不能一直使用。”与题干中描述的内容相符。
Question2
答案:B
关键词:geography,developmentofthecalendar,farmingcommunities
定位原文:B段内容
解题思路:该段一共五句话,从第二句开始每一句话都介绍了一个地理位置的变化对calendar的影响。分别是:And,forthoselivingneartheequatorinparticular,...Hence,thecalendarsthatweredevelopedatthelowerlatitudes,...Inmorenorthernclimes,however,...
AstheRomanEmpireexpandednorthward,...
Question3
答案:F
关键词:pendulumclock,origins
定位原文:F段最后1句“Bythe16thcentury…”
解题思路:含义为“到了16世纪,人们发明了摆钟。但由于钟摆摆动弧度很大,因此并不十分有效”。此句中devised意为“发明”,与题干中的origins对应。
Question4
答案:E
关键词:simultaneousefforts,differentsocieties,uniformhours
对应原文:E段第3句“Theschemes…”
Question5
关键词:civilcalendar,months,equal
定位原文:C段第1句“...theEgyptianshadformulatedamunicipalcalendarhaving12months…”
Question6
答案:F
关键词:day,twoequalhalves
定位原文:E段最后1句“...orFrenchhours,whichsplitthedayintotwo12-hourperiods…”
Question7
关键词:newcabinetshape
定位原文:G段最后一句“...andthusledtothedevelopmentofanewfloor-standingcase…”
解题思路:此句中的floor-standingcasedesign就对应着cabinetshape,且该段第一行就出现了England这个代表国家的词汇。所以答案为D。
Question8
答案:A
关键词:organise,publicevents
定位原文:A段第1句“..theBabyloniansbegantomeasure…”
Question9
答案:(ship’s)anchor/(an/the)anchor
关键词:escapement,resembling
定位原文:G段第2句“Itwascalledtheanchor…”
解题思路:通过定位词很容易找到文中定位句,此句中的like对应resembling,所以答案为(ship’s)anchor/(an/the)anchor。
Question10
答案:(escape)wheel
关键词:releaseeachtooth,wheel
定位原文:G段第3句“Themotionofapendulumrocksthis…”
解题思路:由图可知,本题要求找到该圆盘状物体的名称,故应有意识地寻找与该形状有关的词汇;另外此物体上有齿轮,这也可以作为答题线索。根据...releaseeachtoothoftheescapewheel可知,本题答案为(escape)wheel。
Question11
答案:tooth
关键词:release
定位原文:G段第3句“Themotionofapendulumrocksthis…”
解题思路:由图可知,本题要求找到圆盘物体的支出部分的名称。通过解答第10题,可以很容易地判定本题答案为tooth。
Question12
答案:(long)pendulum
关键词:beats,each
定位原文:G段最后1句“Moreover,thisinventionallowed…”
解题思路:由图可知,本题要求找到长形物体的名称,且应发出beat的动作。同时,本题答案应为一个单数可数名词,可通过冠词帮助找到答案。通过G段最后一句中的alongpendulumwhichcouldbeatonceasecond可以确定本题答案为(long)pendulum。
Question13
答案:second
解题思路:此题可与第12题同时解出,此句中的once对应题干中的each,所以答案为second。
Test1Passage2
Question14
答案:ii
关键词:aviationdisaster,prompts
定位原文:A段第1句“Anaccidentthatoccurredin…”
Question15
答案:iii
关键词:coincidentaldevelopments
定位原文:C段前两句“Inthe1940s,ATGcentrescouldanddid…”
解题思路:C段首句说明了ATC取得的第一个development,即利用了第二次世界大战催生出的新研制的雷达和改进后的无线电通讯技术而建立的不成熟的管制系统。第二句则提到喷气式发动机的产生突然导致大批快速飞机的出现,因此促使美国开始进行全面的空中管制,两个逗号之间的部分指出了这一development的偶然性(fortuitous),与iii中的coincidental含义一致。因此答案为iii。
Question16
答案:v
关键词:oversimplified
定位原文:D段第1、2句“Manypeoplethinkthat...Thisisaveryincompletepartofthepicture.”
解题思路:D段首句阐述了一个大众观点(manypeoplethink...),接着第二句指出这个观点过于片面。题干中的oversimplified相当于原句中的incomplete。
Question17
答案:iv
关键词:altitudezones
定位原文:E段第2句“First,ATCextendsovervirtually…”
解题思路:E段第二句中提出让航空交通管制几乎遍及整个美国,接着分别讲述了不同高度的空域管制情况(from365mabovethegroundandhigher,215mabovetheground,below365m...)因此答案为iv。
Question18
答案:viii
关键词:weatherconditions
定位原文:F段第1句“TheFAAthenrecognized…”
解题思路:F段首句提出FAA确认了两种飞行环境。接着对这两种环境进行了解释说明,即在气象条件良好的情况下,飞行员可按照目视飞行规则(VFR)飞行;在低能见度的情况下,飞行员则须按照仪表飞行规则(IFR)飞行。因此答案是viii。
Question19
答案:vii
关键词:airspacecategories
定位原文:G段第1句“Controlledairspaceisdividedinto…”
Question20
答案:FALSE
关键词:FAA,createdasresultof
定位原文:A段第1句“Anaccidentthatoccurredintheskies…”
Question21
关键词:AirTrafficControl,theGrandCanyoncrash
定位原文:B段第1句“Rudimentaryairtrafficcontrol(ATC)existed…”
Question22
答案:NOTGIVEN
关键词:beaconsandflashinglights
定位原文:B段第2句“...whilebeaconsandflashinglights…”
解题思路:此题的定位词在文中原词出现,按照顺序原则可以迅速定位。文中定位处仅指出beacons和flashinglights在当时的使用情况,对于题干中所指的如今的使用状况只字未提。故此题答案为NOTGIVEN。
Question23
答案:TRUE
关键词:improvements,radiocommunication,WorldWarII
定位原文:C段第1句“...improvedradiocommunicationbroughtaboutbytheSecondWorldWar...”
解题思路:此题定位很简单,定位句含义为“第二次世界大战催生出的……改进后的无线电通讯技术”,与题干含义无异。故此题答案为TRUE。
Question24
答案:TRUE
关键词:ClassF,365m
定位原文:G段第2句“Uncontrolledairspace…”E段第3、4句和最后1句
解题思路:通过定位词ClassF可快速定位至G段处,但是只能确定ClassF为uncontrolledairspace,通过该短语及365m可继续定位于E段。E段定位句说明从365米往上的区间为controlledairspace,且在大部分nearairports的区域,215米以上的区间都是controlledairspace,因此可以逆推出uncontrolledairspace的情况。故此题答案为TRUE。
Question25
关键词:ClassEairspace,IFR
定位原文:G段第7句“ThedifferencebetweenClassEand…”
解题思路:此题通过定位词能够迅速定位。定位句的含义为“E级和A级之间的区别在于A级领空中所有的操作都遵循仪表飞行规则”。显然题干信息与定位句内容矛盾。此题还可以按照绝对化词汇all和must来快速判定答案。故此题答案为FALSE。
Question26
关键词:pilot,ClassC
定位原文:G段第9句“Threeothertypesofairspace,…”
解题思路:此题通过定位词能够迅速定位。定位句中的medium-sized与题干中average-sized属于同义转述。故此题答案为TRUE。
Test1Passage3
Question27
关键词:researcherswithdifferingattitudes,agreeon
定位原文:第2段第3句“Scepticsandadvocates…”
Question28:
关键词:experiences,meditation
定位原文:第2段第5句话“Inthiscase,suchsignalsmight…”
解题思路:题目中要求找到实验的启示,答案出现在下一句中,其中inarelaxing‘wholefield’oflight,soundandwarmth是题目中的suitableenvironment的具体表现。
Question29:
答案:A
关键词:attitudes,parapsychology,alter
定位原文:第8段第4、5句“Answeringsuchquestionswould…”
解题思路:第四句中的transform对应题干中的alter,第五句中才提及研究者们的attitude,即该研究的未来在于探究可能的机制(mechanisms)。故正确答案为A。
Question30:
关键词:autoganzfeldtrials,success
定位原文:第8段倒数第2、3句“Someworkhasbegunalready…”
解题思路:此题通过定位词可以迅速定位到第八段倒数第三句,倒数第二句指出有创造力和艺术性的人们表现得更好。因此可知样本的选择对命中率会有很大影响。故正确答案为F。
Question31:
答案:sender
关键词:Ganzfeldstudies,1982,person,actingas,four
定位原文:第3段第3句“Theideawasthataperson…”
Question32:
答案:picture/image
关键词:one,randomselection,four
定位原文:第3段第2句“Inearlyganzfeldexperiments…”
解题思路:此题轻微乱序,但定位词很明显且定位句是上一题定位句的前一句。空格所填词应为从randomselectionsoffour中pickedout的宾语。所以此题填picture/image。题干中的pickedout与原文中的chosenfrom属于同义转述。
Question33:
答案:receiver
关键词:ichthyosaurs,canbedeterminedby,appearance
定位原文:第3段第4句“Oncethesessionwasover,this…”
解题思路:此题定位较易。空格所填词应为identify这一动作的发出者,定位句中与之相对应的是指代词thisperson,于是倒着往回看上一句,即第31题对应句,可以找出thisperson的具体指代对象。所以此题填receiver。
Question34:
答案:sensoryleakage
关键词:flaw,positiveresults
定位原文:第4段第4句“...thereweremanyotherwaysofgettingpositiveresults.Theserangedfrom‘sensoryleakage…”
解题思路:此题根据定位词及顺序原则可定位至第四段第四行最后,其中manyotherways对应题干中的factors,具体内容在接下来的一句中。所以此题填sensoryleakage。
Question35:
答案:outrightfraud
关键词:or
定位原文:第4段第4句““...thereweremanyotherwaysofgettingpositiveresults.Theserangedfrom‘sensoryleakage…”
解题思路:此空与34题为并列关系。很明显答案为outrightfraud。
Question36:
答案:computers
关键词:1987,keytasks
定位原文:第5段第1句“…techniquewhichusedcomputersto…”
解题思路:空格所填词应为被用来完成keytasks的对象,文中的perform对应题干中的wereusedfor。所以此题填computers。
Question37:
答案:humaninvolvement
关键词:limit
定位原文:第5段第2句“Byminimisinghumaninvolvement...”
解题思路:此题按照顺序原则定位,原文中的minimising对应题干中的limit,空格所填词应为被限制的对象。所以此题填humaninvolvement。
Question38:
答案:meta-analysis
关键词:results,subjectedtoa
定位原文:第5段倒数第2句“In1987,resultsfromhundreds…”
解题思路:空格所填词应为subjectto的对象。所以此题填meta-analysis。
Question39:
答案:lackofconsistency
关键词:flaw,differenttestresults
定位原文:第6段第1句“Yetsomeparapsychologists…”
解题思路:此题定位较难,文中的individualganzfeldstudies与题干中的differenttest对应。空格所填词应为不同实验结果之间的关系。所以此题填lackofconsistency。
Question40:
答案:big/largeenough
关键词:fact,samplegroup,not
定位原文:第6段倒数第3句“...thegroupisjustnotbigenough.”
解题思路:此题定位较易。空格所填词应为samplegroups的特征,而且此题可以通过否定词not帮助判断答案。所以此题填big/largeenough。